INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS

 

International Environmental Conventions

A Conference is consulting together formally; a type of negotiations, there is only a broad theme. In a conference the principle bodies are established for further deliberations if any is required on the broad theme for which the conference is called for.

A Convention is a meeting or gathering to formulate or deliberate on a generally accepted principle, a framework in which the parties decide the basic guidelines.

(Note: Sometimes, the line between conference and a convention is very thin and sometimes they are interchangeably used because the outcome document of convention is arrived at the conference)

A Protocol to the convention is an agreement that diplomatic negotiators formulate and sign as the basis for a final convention where the parties set specific aims or legal obligations. Usually, when a major provision is to be incorporated on regulations of the convention, a protocol is called among the countries, who are signatory of the original convention when it was signed and approved.

  

Under the UNO

• The UN Charter does not specifically mention the environment or sustainable development.
• Both the General Assembly (UNGA) and the Economic and Social Council(ECOSOC –which is one of the 6 main organs of the United Nations) consider environmental questions.
• The lead organization under the United Nations charter that deliberates on the environment related issues is the UN Environment Programme (UNEP is under the UN General Assembly organ of the UN)and theCommission on Sustainable Development is another forum for the countries to discuss the issues.
• The World Meteorological Organization and UN Environment established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988.
• UN Environment is also one of several Implementing Agencies for the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and the Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol.

 

Economic and Social Council adopts a resolution to recommend the UN General Assembly to consider convening a UN conference on problems of the environment or UNGA may on its own pass a resolution to convene a conference on the issue.

Example:

• Sweden first suggested to ECOSOC in 1968 the idea of having a UN conference to focus on human interactions with the environment.
• ECOSOC passed a resolution supporting the idea and recommended the General Assembly consider convening a UN conference.
• General Assembly Resolution in 1969 decided to convene a conference in 1972 and suggesting that the conference focus on “stimulating and providing guidelines for action by national government and international organizations” facing environmental issues.
• The UN Conference on the Human Environment (1972) at Stockholm was held.This led to the establishment of the United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP) – the leading global environmental authority that sets the global environmental agenda, promotes the coherent implementation of the environmental dimension of sustainable development within the United Nations system and serves as an authoritative advocate for the global environment.

 

IUCN

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources.

• In 1947, the Swiss League for the Protection of Nature organised an international conference on the protection of nature in Brunnen (Switzerland).
• Afterwards, the IUCN was established on 5 October 1948, in Fontainebleau, France
• Its headquarters are in Gland, Switzerland
• It was previously called the International Union for Protection of Nature– IUPN (1948–1956) and the World Conservation Union (1990–2008).
• IUCN has observer and consultative status at the United Nations, and plays a role in the implementation of several international conventions on nature conservation and biodiversity. (Note: It is not a member or part of the UN)
• It is best known for compiling and publishing the IUCN Red List, which assesses the conservation status of species worldwide.
• IUCN was established in 1948.

IUCN was one of the few NGOs formally involved in the preparations of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm, 1972). The Stockholm Conference eventually led to three new international conventions, with IUCN involved in their drafting and implementation:

• To establish a stable financial basis for its work, IUCN participated in setting up the World Wildlife Fund (1961) now called the World Wide Fund for Nature WWF.
• Convention Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972). IUCN provides technical evaluations and monitoring
• CITES– the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (1974) IUCN is a signatory party and the CITES secretariat was originally lodged with IUCN
• Ramsar Convention – Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (1975). The secretariat is still administered from IUCN’s headquarters.
• In 1975 IUCN started work on the World Conservation Strategy.

The Strategy was followed in 1982 by the World Charter for Nature, which was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly, after preparation by IUCN.

 

TIMELINE

RAMSAR CONVENTION, 1971

• The Convention on Wetlands, called the Ramsar Convention, is an intergovernmental treaty that provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources.
• The Convention was adopted in the Iranian city of Ramsar in 1971 and came into force in 1975 after UNESCO (the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), the Convention’s depositary received the instruments of accession from the countries.
• The RAMSAR Secretariat is based at the headquarters of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in Gland, Switzerland.
• World Wetlands Day is celebrated on February 2nd.

 

Criteria for Selecting a RAMSAR site:

• Criterion 1:If the site is representative, rare, or unique example of a natural or near-natural wetland type found within the appropriate biogeographic region.
• Criterion 2: if it supports vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered species or threatened ecological communities.
• Criterion 3: if it supports populations of plant and/or animal species important for maintaining the biological diversity of a particular biogeographic region.
• Criterion 4: if it supports plant and/or animal species at a critical stage in their life cycles, or provides refuge during adverse conditions.
• Criterion 5: if it regularly supports 20,000 or more water-birds.
• Criterion 6: if it regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a population of one species or subspecies of water-bird.
• Criterion 7: if it supports a significant proportion of indigenous fish subspecies, species or families, life-history stages, species interactions and/or populations that are representative of wetland benefits and/or values and thereby contributes to global biological diversity.
• Criterion 8: if it is an important source of food for fishes, spawning ground, nursery and/or migration path on which fish stocks, either within the wetland or elsewhere, depend.
• Criterion 9: if it regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a population of one species or subspecies of wetland-dependent non-avian animal species.

 

The Montreux Record

• The Montreux Record is a register of wetland sites on the List of Wetlands of International Importance where changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring, or are likely to occur as a result of technological developments, pollution or other human interference. It is maintained as part of the Ramsar List.

 

RAMSAR SITES in India

The aim of the Ramsar list is “to develop and maintain an international network of wetlands which are important for the conservation of global biological diversity and for sustaining human life through the maintenance of their ecosystem components, processes and benefits”.

• The convention entered into force in India on 1 February 1982.
• The 46 Ramsar sites in India include the Chilika Lake in Odisha, Keoladeo National Park in Rajasthan, Harike Lake in Punjab, Loktak Lake in Manipur and Wular Lake in Jammu and Kashmir.
• Keoladeo National Park, Loktak Lake, are designated in Montreux record, and Chilka lake was designated but removed in 2002.

RAMSAR WETLANDS SITES (As on December, 2020)

Four more sites from India have been recognized under the 1971 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands bringing the total number of such designated areas in the country to 46, the environment ministry said on Saturday.

These sites are Thol and Wadhwana from Gujarat and Sultanpur and Bhindawas from Haryana, the ministry said in a statement.

 

The World Heritage Convention, 1972

• The Convention recognizes the way in which people interact with nature, and the fundamental need to preserve the balance between the two.
• The Convention defines the kind of natural or cultural sites which can be considered for inscription on the World Heritage Listed Under UNESCO
• Established in 1992, the World Heritage Centre ensures the day-to-day management of the Convention.
• The most significant feature of the 1972 World Heritage Convention is that it links together in a single document the concepts of nature conservation and the preservation of cultural properties. The Convention recognizes the way in which people interact with nature, and the fundamental need to preserve the balance between the two.
• At present, there are 40 World Heritage Sites located in India. Out of these, 32 are cultural, 7 are natural, and 1 is mixed (meeting both cultural and natural criteria), as determined by the organization’s selection criteria. India has the sixth largest number of sites in the world.

 

The list of UNESCO Natural World Heritage sites in India is given below:

 

The list of UNESCO Cultural World Heritage sites in India is given below:

Mixed  World Heritage Site

• Khangchendzonga National Park (2016)

 

The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held at Stockholm June 1972

• Generally called the ―Stockholm Conference.
• It Was the first declaration of international protection of the environment. In the conference
• The Stockholm Declaration contains 26 principles. These principles provide the basis of anInternational Policy for the Protection and improvement of the environment.
• The United Nations Environment Programme has been established by the UNGA in pursuance of the Stockholm Conference.
• The Environmental Programmewas set up in Geneva in June 1972.

 

Convention on International Trade in Endangered species of Wild flora and fauna(CITES) 1973

• It was drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of members of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
• The Conference aims to control or prevent international commercial trade in endangered species or products derived from them.
• The Convention does not seek to directly protect endangered species, rather it seeks to reduce the economic incentive to poach endangered species and destroy their habitat by closing off the international market.
• India became a party to the convention in 1976. International trade in all wild flora and fauna in general and species covered under convention is regulated through the provisions of the Wild life (protection) Act 1972.
• Although CITES is legally binding on the Parties, it does not take the place of national laws.

 

CONVENTION ON MIGRATORY SPECIES, 1979 (BONN CONVENTION)

• The Convention on the Conservation of MigratorySpecies of Wild Animals (also known as the BonnConvention) aims to “conserve terrestrial, marine and avian migratory species throughout their range.”
• The Conventionfacilitates the adoption of strict protection measures for endangered migratory species, the conclusion of multilateral agreements for the conservation and management of migratory species, and cooperative research activities.
• The Convention has two appendices:
  • Appendix I lists migratory species that are classified as endangered and where urgent international cooperation is necessary to address the issue.
  • Appendix II lists other species that require or would benefit significantly from international agreements under the Convention.
• Signed in 1979 in Bonn, West Germany, the Convention entered into force in 1983. As of September 2020, there are 131 Member States to the Convention. The depositary is the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany.
• Marine Turtles, Siberian and Dugong are a part of the conservation under this convention which are related to India.

 

CMS- COP 13

India hosted 13th Conference of Parties (COP) of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) from 17th to 22nd February, 2020 at Gandhinagar in Gujarat.

• The Logo of COP 13 was inspired by ‘Kolam’– a traditional art form Southern India used to depict key migratory species in India like Amur Falcon, and Marine Turtles.
• It highlighted the importance of ecological connectivity (unimpeded movement of species and flow of natural processes) to better protect migratory wildlife and their habitats.
  • CMS has focused on the connectivity concept to be integrated into the new Global Biodiversity Framework (which will be adopted in 2021 in China).
  • Also, countries can integrate biodiversity and migratory species considerations with their national energy and climate policy actions.
• COP 13, proposes to include ten new species for protection under CMS:
  • Three Indian Species: Asian Elephant, Bengal Florican, Great Indian Bustard.
  • Other 7 from around the world: Jaguar (proposed by Costa Rica, Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay), Whitetip shark (Brazil), Little Bustard (EU Nations), Urial (Tajikistan, Iran, Uzbekistan), Antipodean Albatross (New Zealand, Australia, Chile), Smooth Hammerhead Shark (Brazil), and Tope Shark (EU Nations).
• COP 13 highlighted the threats to biodiversity:
  • Loss and fragmentation of habitats, and habitat destruction & degradation.
  • Climate change.

 

WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY, 1980

• In 1975 IUCN started work on the World Conservation Strategy.
• Stopping illegal trade of wildlife is one of IUCN’s priorities
• The drafting process – and the discussions with the UN agencies involved – led to an evolution in thinking within IUCN and growing acceptance of the fact that conservation of nature by banning human presence no longer worked.
• The World Conservation Strategy was launched in 35 countries simultaneously on 5 March 1980.
• It set out fundamental principles and objectives for conservation worldwide, and identified priorities for national and international action.
• It is considered one of the most influential documents in 20th century nature conservation and one of the first official documents to introduce the concept of sustainable development.
• The Strategy was followed in 1982 by the World Charter for Nature, which was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly, after preparation by IUCN.

 

 WORLD CHARTER FOR NATURE, 1982

• World Charter for Nature was adopted by United Nations member nation-states on October 28, 1982. It proclaims five “principles of conservation by which all human conduct affecting nature is to be guided and judged.”
  • Nature shall be respected and its essential processes shall not be impaired.
  • The genetic viability on the earth shall not be compromised; the population levels of all life forms, wild and domesticated, must be at least sufficient for their survival, and to this end necessary habitats shall be safeguarded.
  • All areas of the earth, both land and sea, shall be subject to these principles of conservation; special protection shall be given to unique areas, to representative samples of all the different types of ecosystems and to the habitats of rare or endangered species.
  • Ecosystems and organisms, as well as the land, marine and atmospheric resources that are utilized by man, shall be managed to achieve and maintain optimum sustainable productivity, but not in such a way as to endanger the integrity of those other ecosystems or species with which they coexist.
  • Nature shall be secured against degradation caused by warfare or other hostile activities.

 

Nairobi Declaration 1982 to Stockholm Conference

• The Nairobi Declaration was adopted at Nairobi for celebrating the 10thAnniversary of the Stockholm conference on human Environment in 1972.
• The Declaration envisaged the creation of a special commission to frame long term environment strategies for achieving sustainable developments upto the year 2000 and beyond.

 

Vienna convention for the protection of ozone layer (1985)

• The convention was adopted on 22nd March, 1985 by the conference ofThe Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer is a Multilateral Environmental Agreement.
• The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer is a multilateral environmental agreement signed in 1985 that provided frameworks for international reductions in the production of chlorofluorocarbons due to their contribution to the destruction of the ozone layer, resulting in an increased threat of skin cancer
• It is under The Vienna convention of 1985 was the starting point of the global cooperation for protection of ozone layer. Later,adoption of Montreal protocol on substances that deplete ozone layer on 1987, the amendment in Montreal protocol in London (1990) and Vienna (1995).

 

Montreal protocol on substances that deplete ozone layer, 1987 to the Vienna Convention

• The Protocol came into force in 1989.
• The protocol set targets for reducing the consumption and production of a range of ozone depleting substances.
• The 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer and its succeeding amendments were subsequently negotiated to control the consumption and production of anthropogenic ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) and some hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs).
• ODSs include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), bromine containing halons and methyl bromide, HCFCs, carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), and methyl chloroform.
• These ODSs are long-lived (e.g., CFC-12 has a lifetime greater than 100 years) and are also powerful GHGs.
• The adoption of the 2016 Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol will phase down the production and consumption of some HFCs and avoid much of the projected global increase and associated climate change.
• In a major innovation the protocol recognized that all nations should not be treated equally. The agreement acknowledges that certain countries have contributed to ozone depletion more than others.
• It also recognizes that a nation‘s obligation to reduce current emissions should reflect its technological and financial ability to do so. Because Of this, the agreement sets more stringent standards and accelerated the phase-out timetable to countries that have contributed most to ozone depletion.
• India accepted this protocol along with its London Amendment in September 1992.
• The Ministry of Environmentand Forest has established an ozone cell and a steering committee on the protocol to facilitate implementation of the India country program, for phasing out ozone depleting substances production by 2010 to meet the commitments India has also taken policy decisions.
• The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules 2000 were drafted under Environment (protection) Act, 1986.

 

Amendment to Montreal Protocol, 2017

• 170 countries have reached a historic deal to phase out Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) after years of protracted and at times seemingly intractable negotiations in Kigali, Rwanda accepted an amendment to the Montreal Protocol that will see developed countries reduce their use of HFCs from 2019.
• HFCs are potent greenhouse gases with a significantly higher global warming potential than carbon dioxide and are widely used as refrigerants, aerosol sprays and in solvents. HFCs have been widely used as an alternative to Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) since the Montreal Protocol came into effect to prevent ozone depletion.

 

Kigali Amendment to Montreal Protocol

• On October 15, 2016, with the United States’ leadership, 197 countries adopted an amendment to phase down HFCs under the Montreal Protocol in Kigali, Rwanda.
• The Kigali Amendment aims for the phase-down of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) by cutting their production and consumption.
• The goal is to achieve over 80% reduction in HFC consumption by 2047.
• Given their zero impact on the depletion of the ozone layer, HFCs are currently used as replacements of hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in air conditioning, refrigeration and foam insulation, however they are powerful greenhouse gases.
• The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol is legally binding and will come into force from January 1, 2019.
• Under the amendment :
  • developed countries will reduce HFC consumption beginning in 2019.
  • most developing countries will freeze consumption in 2024,
  • some developing countries including India with unique circumstances will freeze consumption in 2028.
• The plan also provides financing to certain countries, to help them transition to climate-friendly alternatives.
• Developed countries must reduce HFCs use by 10% by 2019 from 2011-2013 levels, and 85% by 2036.
• A second group of developing countries, including China and African nations, are committed to launching the transition in 2024. A reduction of 10% compared with 2020-2022 levels should be achieved by 2029, and 80% by 2045.
• A third group of developing countries, including India, Pakistan and Arab Gulf states, must begin the process in 2028 and reduce emissions by 10% by 2032 from 2024-2026 levels, and then by 85% by 2047.

 

World Commission on Environment and Development (1987)

• It was started by the UN General Assembly resolution in 1983 and based on a four-year study entitled “Our Common Future”, also known as the Brundtland report in 1987 was put out.
• It developed the theme of sustainable development. It was the first time Sustainable Development was officially defined;
• This commission is also called the Brundtland commission.

 

Basel convention on trans-boundary movement of hazardous wastes, 1989

• The industrialized world in the 1980s had led to increasing public resistance to the disposal of hazardous wastes – in accordance with what became known as the NIMBY (Not in My Back Yard) syndrome – and to an increase of disposal costs. This in turn led some operators to seek cheap disposal options for hazardous wastes in the developing countries, where environmental awareness was much less developed and regulations and enforcement mechanisms were lacking
• Basel Convention, is an international treaty that was designed to reduce the movements of hazardous waste between nations, and specifically to prevent transfer of hazardous waste from developed to less developed countries (LDCs).
• It does not, however, address the movement of radioactive waste.
• The Convention came into force in 1992.
• The objectives of the convention are to reduce trans-boundary movements of hazardous wastes, to minimize the creation of such wastes and to prohibit their shipment from Developed countries to the LDCs
• India ratified the convention and enacted Hazardous Wastes Management Rules Act 1989, encompassing some of theBasal provisions related to the notification of import and export of hazardous wastes,illegal traffic and liability.

 

United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit), 1992

• In continuation of the Stockholm Declaration, 1972 and the Nairobi Declaration,1982 the third major Declaration was held in Rio-de-Janeiro in Brazil in the year 1992.
• Hence it is termed as Rio-Declaration and attended by over 150 countries. Hence, it is also well known as ―Earth Summit.
• It discussed global and environmental problems very widely.
• It was the biggest International Conference in the history of International Relations – was also called the “Parliament of the planet”

 

The formal process of UNCED culminated in the adoption of five documents, namely

• Rio Declaration– a statement of broad principles to guide national
  conduct on environmental protection and development.
• Agenda-21, a massive document containing a detailed action-plan for sustainable development.
• Legally Non-Binding Principles of Forestry.
• Convention on Climate Change and
• Convention onBiodiversity.

 

The Rio Declaration

• The Rio Declaration was adopted in the conference recognizing the universal and integral nature of Earth and by establishing a global partnership among states and enlisting general rights and obligations on environmental protection.
• The RioDeclaration is a statement of 27 principles for the guidance of national environmental behaviour and enlisting general rights and obligations on environmental protection.
• Rio principles placed human beings at the centre of sustainable development concerns by stating that humans are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature
• The gist of those principles are happy and healthy life to all people in the world in order to achieve this goal, concept of sustainable development has been established.
• To achieve sustainable development, states shall reduce and eliminate unsustainable patterns of production and consumption, exchange of scientific and technological knowledge, compensation for adverse effects of environmental damage caused by activities with in their jurisdiction or control to areas beyond their jurisdiction, precautionary approach shall be widely applied by states polluter should bear the cost of pollution, Environmental impact assessment as an instrument to monitor the likely environmental effects.

Agenda-21

• Agenda 21 is a non-binding action plan of the United Nations with regard to sustainable development.
• It is a product of the Earth Summit (UN Conference on Environment and Development) held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992.
• It is an action agenda for the UN, other multilateral organizations, and individual governments around the world that can be executed at local, national, and global levels.
• One major objective of the Agenda 21 initiative is that every local government should draw its own local Agenda 21.
• Its aim initially was to achieve global sustainable development by 2000, with the “21” in Agenda 21 referring to the original target of the 21st century.
• It is a comprehensive action plan which gives a future plan in relation to
  environment and development.
• The Agenda emphasizes on issues like poverty, health consumption patterns, natural resource use, financial resources human settlements and technological
• It also includes energy, climate and other wide range of issues concerning
  environment and development.
• Agenda-21 is not a binding document but it constitutes the key document of the Rio

  

U.N. FrameWork Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 1992

• In 1992, countries joined an international treaty, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, as a framework for international cooperation to combat climate change by limiting average global temperature increases and the resulting climate change, and coping with impacts that were, by then, inevitable.
• The primary goals of the UNFCCC were to stabilize greenhouse gas emissions at levels that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the global climate.
• The convention embraced the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities which has guided the adoption of a regulatory structure.
• India signed the agreement inJune 1992 which was ratified in November 1993. As per the convention the reduction/limitation requirements apply only to developed countries. The only reporting obligation for developing countries relates to the construction of a GHG inventory.
• The UNFCCC entered into force on 21st March 1994, and has been ratified by 197 countries.
• It is the parent treaty of the 2015 Paris Agreement. It is also the parent treaty of the 1997 Kyoto Protocol.
• The UNFCCC secretariat (UN Climate Change) is the United Nations entity tasked with supporting the global response to the threat of climate change. It is located in Bonn, Germany.

  

COP’s with Significant Outcomes

• 1995: COP1 (Berlin, Germany)
• 1997: COP 3 (Kyoto Protocol)
  
  • It legally binds developed countries to emission reduction targets.
• 2002: COP 8 (New Delhi, India) Delhi Declaration.
  
  • Focuses on the development needs of the poorest countries and the need for technology transfer for mitigating climate change.
• 2007: COP13 (Bali, Indonesia)
  
  • Parties agreed on the Bali Road Map and Bali action plan, which charted the way towards a post-2012 outcome. The Plan has five main categories: shared vision, mitigation, adaptation, technology and financing.
• 2010: COP 16 (Cancun)
  
  • Resulted in the Cancun Agreements, a comprehensive package by governments to assist developing nations in dealing with climate change.
  • The Green Climate Fund, the Technology Mechanism and the Cancun Adaptation Framework were established.
• 2011: COP 17 (Durban)
  
  • Governments commit to a new universal climate change agreement by 2015 for the period beyond 2020 (Resulted in the Paris Agreement of 2015).
• 2015: COP21 (Paris)
  
  • To keep global temperature well below 2.0C above pre-industrial times and endeavor them to limit them even more to 1.5C.
  • It requires rich nations to maintain USD 100bn a year funding pledge beyond the year
• 2016: COP22 (Marrakech)
  
  • To move forward on writing the rule book of the Paris Agreement.
  • Launched the Marrakech Partnership for Climate Action.
• 2017: COP23, Bonn (Germany)
  
  • Countries continued to negotiate the finer details of how the agreement will work from 2020 onwards.
  • First set of negotiations since the US, under the presidency of Donald Trump, announced its intention earlier this year to withdraw from the Paris deal.
  • It was the first COP to be hosted by a small-island developing state with Fiji taking up the presidency, even though it was being held in Bonn.
• 2018: COP 24, Katowice (Poland)
  
  • It finalized a “rulebook” to operationalise the 2015 Paris Agreement.
  • The rulebook covers climate financing facilities and the actions to be taken as per Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC).
• 2019: COP25, Madrid (Spain)
  
  • It was held in Madrid (Spain).
  • There were no concrete plans regarding the growing climatic urgency.

 

Kyoto protocol, 1997

• The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, based on the premise that (a) global warming exists and (b) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it.
• The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005.
• There are currently 192 parties to the Protocol.

 

Some of the principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:

•  The main feature of the Protocol is that it established legally binding commitments to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases for parties that ratified the Protocol. The commitments were based on the Berlin Mandate, which was a part of UNFCCC negotiations leading up to the Protocol.
• In order to meet the objectives of the Protocol, Parties are required to prepare policies and measures for the reduction of greenhouse gases in their respective countries. In addition, they are required to increase the absorption of these gases and utilize all mechanisms available, such as
  • joint implementation
  • Clean development mechanism and
  • Emissions trading, in order to be rewarded with credits that would allow more greenhouse gas emissions at home.
• Minimizing Impacts on Developing Countries by establishing an adaptation fund for climate change.
• Accounting, Reporting and Review in order to ensure the integrity of the Protocol.
• Establishing a Compliance Committee to enforce compliance with the commitments under the Protocol.

 

PARIS AGREEMENT, 2016

• The Paris Agreement (French: Accord de Paris) is an agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) dealing with greenhouse gases emissions mitigation, adaptation and finance starting in the year 2020.
• It was opened for signature on 22 April 2016 (Earth Day) at a ceremony in New York. As of December 2016, 194 UNFCCC members have signed the treaty, 131 of which have ratified it.
• The Intended Nationally Determined Contributions pledged during the 2015 Climate Change Conference serve—unless provided otherwise—as the initial nationally determined contribution.
• The emission reduction efforts will be made in order to hold the increase in the global average temperature to below 2 ̊C by reducing emissions to 40 gigatonnes or to 1.5 ̊
• The implementation of the agreement by all member countries together will be evaluated every 5 years, with the first evaluation in 2023.
• The Paris Agreement has a ‘bottom up’ structure in contrast to most international environmental law treaties which are ‘top down’, characterised by standards and targets set internationally, for states to implement.
• Unlike, the Kyoto Protocol, which sets commitment targets that have legal force, the Paris Agreement, with its emphasis on consensus-building, allows for voluntary and nationally determined targets.
• The Paris Agreement still emphasizes the principle of “Common but Differentiated Responsibility”—the acknowledgement that different nations have different capacities and duties to climate action—it does not provide a specific division between developed and developing nations.
• The SDM is considered to be the successor to the Clean Development Mechanism, a flexible mechanism under the Kyoto Protocol, by which parties could collaboratively pursue emissions reductions for their INDCs. The Sustainable Development Mechanism lays the framework for the future of the Clean Development Mechanism post-Kyoto (in 2020).
• Not part of the Paris Agreement (and not legally binding)is a plan to provide US$100 billion a year in aid to developing countries for implementing new procedures to minimize climate change with additional amounts to be provided in subsequent years (The Green Climate Fund (GCF) is a fund within the framework of the UNFCCC )
• The agreement stated that it would enter into force (and thus become fully effective) only if 55 countries that produce at least 55% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions. (US and China together contribute 40% of the emissions.)

 

Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) entered into force on 29 December 1993. It has 3 main objectives:

• The conservation of biological diversity
• The sustainable use of the components of biological diversity.
• The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources
• The Convention was opened for signature on 5 June 1992 at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (the Rio “Earth Summit”).
• This convention is a legally binding framework treaty that has been ratified by180 countries.
• The CBD Secretariat is based in Montreal, Canada and it operates under the United Nations Environment Programme.
• The areas that are dealt by convention are conservation of biodiversity,sustainable use of biological resources and equitable sharing of benefits arising fromtheir sustainable use.
• The convention came into force in 1993. Many biodiversity issuesare addressed including habitat preservation, intellectual property rights, biosafety andindigenous people‘s rights.

 

The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to CBD

• The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity is an international agreement which aims to ensure the safe handling, transport and use of living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology that may have adverse effects on biological diversity, taking also into account risks to human health. It was adopted on 29 January 2000 and entered into force on 11 September 2003.

 

The Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit-sharing

• The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity is an international agreement which aims at sharing the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources in a fair and equitable way. It entered into force on 12 October 2014, 90 days after the date of deposit of the fiftieth instrument of ratification.

 

The Aichi Biodiversity Targets are:

• Strategic Goal A: Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming biodiversity across government and society
• Strategic Goal B: Reduce the direct pressures on biodiversity and promote sustainable use.
• Strategic Goal C: To improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species and genetic diversity
• Strategic Goal D: Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and ecosystem services
• Strategic Goal E: Enhance implementation through participatory planning, knowledge management and capacity building.
• India enacted Biological Diversity Act in 2002 for giving effect to the provisions of the CBD.
• The National Biodiversity Authority is a statutory body, which was established by the Central Government in 2003 to implement India’s Biological Diversity Act (2002).
  • It performs facilitative, regulatory and advisory functions for the Government of India on issues of conservation, sustainable use of biological resources and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of biological resources.
  • The NBA is headquartered in Chennai, Tamil Nadu.

 

U.N. Convention on Desertification, 1994

•  An intergovernmental negotiating committee for the elaboration of an international convention to combat desertification in countries experiencing serious drought and/ or desertification was recommended in 1992 U.N. Conference onEnvironment and Development.
• The U.N. The General Assembly established a committee in1992 which helped formulate the convention on desertification.
• It is a legally binding convention linking development and environment to sustainable land management.
• The UNCCD addresses particularly the arid, semi-arid & dry sub-humid areas, called drylands, where some of the most vulnerable ecosystems and peoples are found.
• The convention endorses and employs a bottom-up approach to international environmental cooperation.
• The Convention aims at tackling desertification through national, regional and sub-regional action programmes. India hosts the network on agroforestry and soil conservation.

 

The 14th edition of the Conference of Parties (COP-14) to the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) ended on 13th September 2019.

• Held in Greater Noida, this was the first time that India hosted an edition of the UNCCD COP.
• The theme of the Conference was ‘Restore land, Sustain future’.
• India being the global host for COP 14 has taken over the COP Presidency from China for the next two years till 2021.
• India is among the select few countries to have hosted the COP of all three Rio conventions on climate change, biodiversity and land.

 

Key Takeaways

• Delhi Declaration: Commitment for a range of issues, including gender and health, ecosystem restoration, taking action on climate change, private sector engagement, Peace Forest Initiative and recovery of five million hectares of degraded land in India.
  • The country parties have agreed to make the Sustainable Development Goal target of achieving land degradation neutrality by 2030, a national target for action.
  • Peace Forest Initiative: It is an initiative of South Korea to use ecological restoration as a peace-building process. It aims at addressing the issue of land degradation in conflict-torn border areas and would go a long way in alleviating tensions and building trust between communities living there and between enemy countries in particular.
• Drought Toolbox: It is launched as a one-stop-shop for all actions on drought. It is a sort of knowledge bank which contains tools that strengthen the ability of countries to anticipate and prepare for drought effectively and mitigate their impacts as well as tools that enable communities to anticipate and find the land management tools that help them to build resilience to drought.
• International coalition for action on Sand and Dust storms (SDS): The coalition will develop an SDS source base map with the goal of improving monitoring and response to these storms. SDS affects approximately 77% of UNCCD country Parties or approximately 151 countries.
• Initiative of Sustainability, Stability and Security (3S): Launched by 14 African countries to address migration driven by land degradation. It aims at restoring land and creating green jobs for migrants and vulnerable groups.
• Cooperation From Youth: The global Youth Caucus on Desertification and Land convened its first official gathering in conjunction with the UNCCD COP14 to bring together youth advocates from different parts of the world, to build their capacity, share knowledge, build networks and to engage them meaningfully in the UNCCD processes.

 

World Summit on Sustainable Development (2002)

• The World Summit on Sustainable Development 2002, took place in South Africa, from 26 August to 4 September 2002. It was convened to discuss [sustainable development] organizations, 10 years after the first Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. (It was therefore also informally nicknamed “Rio+10”.)
• Reviewed progress in the implementation of Agenda 21 since its adoption in 1992

 

ROTTERDAM CONVENTION, 1998

• The Rotterdam Convention (formally, the Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade) signed in 1998 is a multilateral treaty to promote shared responsibilities in relation to importation of hazardous chemicals, effective from 2004.
• The convention promotes open exchange of information and calls on exporters of hazardous chemicals to use proper labelling, include directions on safe handling, and inform purchasers of any known restrictions or bans.
• Signatory nations can decide whether to allow or ban the importation of chemicals listed in the treaty, and exporting countries are obliged to make sure that producers within their jurisdiction comply.
• In 2012, the Secretariats of the Basel and Stockholm conventions, as well as the UNEP-part of the Rotterdam Convention Secretariat, merged to a single Secretariat with a matrix structure serving the three conventions.
• The three conventions now hold back to back Conferences of the Parties as part of their joint synergies decisions.

 

Stockholm Convention on POPs, 2004

• Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants is an international environmental treaty, signed in 2001 and effective from May 2004, that aims to eliminate or restrict the production and use of persistent organic pollutants (POPs).
• In 1995, the Governing Council of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) called for global action to be taken on POPs, which it defined as “chemical substances that persist in the environment, bio-accumulate through the food web, and pose a risk of causing adverse effects to human health and the environment”.

 

UN Conference on Sustainable Development (2012)

• It was the third international conference on sustainable development aimed at reconciling the economic and environmental goals of the global community.
• It is also known as Rio 2012 / Rio+20 / held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 20th anniversary of Earth Summit
• 10th anniversary of the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg.

 

The future we want

From 20 to 22 June 2012, world leaders and representatives met for intense meetings which culminated in finalizing the non-binding document, “The Future We Want: Outcome document of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 20–22 June 2012”, which opens with, “We the Heads of State and Government and high-level representatives”, having met at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from 20 to 22 June 2012, with the full participation of civil society, renew our commitment to sustainable development and to ensuring the promotion of an economically, socially and environmentally sustainable future for our planet and for present and future generations.

 

PAGE, launched in 2013, is a direct response to the Rio+20 Declaration, The Future We Want.Partnership for Action on Green Economy (PAGE)

• Rio+20 Declaration called upon the UN system and the international community to aid interested countries in developing, adopting and implementing green economy policies and strategies.
• PAGE supports nations in reframing economic policies and practices around sustainability.
• PAGE seeks to assist countries in achieving SDG (2030 Agenda), especially SDG 8: “Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment.”
• PAGE brings together the expertise of five UN agencies – UNEP, ILO, UNIDO, UNDP and UNITAR.

 

UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development

• The UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development was launched in 2015.
• The UN 2030 Agenda’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) aim at eradicating poverty in all forms and “seek to realize the human rights of all and achieve gender equality”.
• The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a collection of 17 global goals, and their 169 targets, set by the United Nations General Assembly in 2015 for the year 2030 (UNGA resolution “2030 Agenda”).

 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

• IPCC is a scientific intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations.
• It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
• Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP.
• The IPCC produces reports that support the UNFCCC.
• IPCC reports cover all relevant information to understand the risk of human-induced climate change, its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation.
• The IPCC does not carry out its own original research.

 

Global Environment Facility

• The Global Environment Facility (GEF) unites 183 countries in partnership with international institutions, civil society organizations (CSOs), and the private sector to address global environmental issues while supporting national sustainable development initiatives.
• An independently operating financial organization, the GEF provides grants for projects related to biodiversity, climate change, international waters, land degradation, the ozone layer, and persistent organic pollutants.

 

The GEF also serves as financial mechanism for the following conventions:

• Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
• UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
• Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
• Minamata Convention on Mercury
• The GEF, although not linked formally to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (MP), supports implementation of the Protocol in countries with economies in transition.

 

The GEF works with18 agencies. Notable ones among them are:

1. United Nations Development Programme
2. United Nations Environment
3. World Bank
4. Food and Agriculture Organization
5. Asian Development Bank
6. International Fund for Agricultural Development
7. World Wildlife Fund – US
8. Conservation International
9. International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)