UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 26 JUNE 2026

Context: Following the death of Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei—who was killed in late February 2026 during initial military strikes on Iran by the United States and Israel—the Iranian government extended a formal invitation to Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi to attend the funeral service scheduled for July 2026.

About The Iran–India Civilizational Relationship:

What it is?

• Moving beyond contemporary regional power balances, the connection represents a deep civilizational link. This historical alignment has enriched both societies, deeply influencing their administrative architectures, linguistic evolutions, trade pathways, and monumental art forms.

Key Chronological Milestones and Evidence:

1. Antiquity and the Indo-Iranian Horizon:

• Linguistic and Scriptural Affinities: Clear ancestry is preserved in the structural and vocabulary links between the Rig Veda and the Avesta (the sacred text of Zoroastrianism). Striking theological parallels exist between the Sanskrit asura and Persian ahura, soma and haoma, and yajna and yasna.
• Achaemenid Imperial Contacts (550–330 BCE): Under the rule of Emperor Darius, the regions of Gandhara and Sind were formally integrated as territories of the Persian Empire. Indian regiments served within the Persian military, while overland trade routes connected the subcontinental interior deep into continental Eurasia.
• Mauryan Artistic Adaptations: Archaeological and art history assessments indicate that elite Mauryan imperial architecture—most notably the use of polished stone edict pillars and monumental public forms—absorbed structural inspiration from Achaemenid traditions.

2. Medieval Integration and Cosmopolitan Fusions:

• The Lingua Franca of Governance: With the rise of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire, Persian emerged as the definitive language of diplomacy, law, and intellectual life across India, utilized widely by both Hindu and Muslim administrative elites.
• The Indo-Persian Architectural Synthesis: Rather than direct imitation, Indian builders creatively fused indigenous styles with Persian features like the arch, dome, aiwan (vaulted hall), pishtaq (formal entryway), and the charbagh (quadrilateral garden layout).
• The Migration of Talent: From the 16th century onward, a cosmopolitan wave of thousands of Iranian scholars, administrators, poets, physicians, and painters migrated to India for royal court patronage, deeply enriching early modern Indian scholarship and establishing the famous Mughal painting atelier.

3. Post-Independence and Modern Strategic Ties

• Cold War Geopolitics: Following Indian independence, New Delhi and Tehran maintained stable, functional diplomatic relations despite being aligned with opposing global treaty blocks.
• Energy and Maritime Transit Security: Iran evolved into a primary supplier of crude oil for India’s economic growth, while New Delhi viewed Tehran as a geographical transit gateway to bypass land restrictions and access Afghanistan and Central Asia.
• The Chabahar Port Anchor: This joint maritime development project represents the peak of modern bilateral infrastructure integration, securing a resilient trade corridor to northern continental markets.

Key Geopolitical Challenges in a Changing West Asia:

• Balancing Cross-Bloc Alliances: India’s rapid diplomatic expansion and security partnerships with Israel and Western groupings (such as the I2U2 minilateral network) complicate its long-term strategic relationship with Tehran.
• Navigating Comprehensive Sanctions Regimes: Unilateral Western sanctions on Iran’s banking, shipping, and oil industries limit India’s ability to maintain regular energy imports and execute trade settlements smoothly.
• Managing Escalating Regional Hot Wars: The current direct military conflict involving the U.S., Israel, and Iran threatens to destabilize West Asian maritime choke points, driving up trade insurance premiums and threatening the physical safety of millions of Indian expatriates working in the Gulf.
• The Shadows of Third-Party Investments: China’s growing economic footprints and long-term infrastructure funding commitments in Iran challenge India’s efforts to position itself as the primary infrastructure partner for regional development.

Way Forward:

• Preserving Strategic Autonomy Through Multi-Alignment: India must maintain its traditional diplomatic stance of strategic autonomy, engaging productively with all major West Asian centers—including Israel, Iran, and the GCC nations—without joining localized security blocks.
• Securing the Financial Viability of Chabahar Port: Insulate the Chabahar Port infrastructure operations from shifting global sanctions by utilizing local currency payment frameworks or designated humanitarian trade exemptions.
• Re-engaging Shared Cultural Diplomacy Channels: Use the deep historical and linguistic ties of the Indo-Persian heritage to create alternative paths for quiet, civilizational diplomacy during times of acute regional conflict.
• Expanding Portability and Expatriate Grid Protections: Coordinate with Iranian and Gulf authorities to build portable emergency communication corridors to safeguard the broader Indian diaspora against sudden shifts in the regional security matrix.

Conclusion:

As a civilizational partner that helped shape India’s historical, architectural, and administrative identity, Iran represents more than a standard energy supplier. Ultimately, as West Asia enters a period of deep structural volatility, maintaining a careful diplomatic balance and protecting its strategic autonomy will remain essential for India to secure its long-term economic and maritime interests across the region.

Context: South Korean President Lee Jae Myung made a historic visit to India—the first by a South Korean leader in eight years—meeting with Prime Minister of India.

• This high-level interaction has injected positive momentum into bilateral strategic ties, paving the way for extensive collaboration to transform India’s domestic shipbuilding industry.

About The Shift in India’s Shipbuilding Drive:

What it is?

• The modern shift in India’s shipbuilding drive marks a transition from fragmented, slow-moving maritime projects to a holistic, cluster-led developmental model inspired by successful international hubs like Ulsan in South Korea.
• Rather than simply buying vessels from abroad, India is positioning itself as a major manufacturing destination by establishing greenfield shipyards and localized supply chains.

Key Highlights of the India–South Korea Shipbuilding Deals:

• The Mega Greenfield Investment: A subsidiary of HD Korea Shipbuilding & Offshore Engineering (Hyundai) signed an agreement with Cochin Shipyard Limited to invest $4 billion in Thoothukudi, Tamil Nadu, to construct a state-of-the-art green shipyard.
• Strategic Defense Partnerships: Samsung Heavy Industries (SHI) finalized a manufacturing partnership with Swan Defence and Heavy Industries to build advanced ships directly in India.
• Ancillary Supply Chain Mapping: The Korea Marine Equipment Association (KOMEA), which represents 304 specialized enterprises across ship design, repair, and marine hardware, has established a dedicated office in Mumbai to seed a localized component cluster.
• Cluster-Led Success Blueprints: Both governments signed multiple business-to-business (B2B) and government-to-government (G2G) agreements targeting workforce development, maritime education, and joint research to replicate the Ulsan industrial cluster model.
• Massive Foreign Capital Commitments: The sudden entry of South Korea’s Big Three shipbuilders—Samsung, Hyundai, and Hanwha Ocean—reaffirms Seoul’s deep-level strategic and financial commitment to anchoring India’s maritime supply lines.

Current Indian Shipbuilding Status:

• Clear Vision Targets: India’s development roadmaps—the Maritime Vision 2030 and Maritime Amrit Kaal Vision 2047—set clear targets to place the country among the top 10 global shipbuilding nations by 2030 and the top 5 by 2047.
• Dedicated Financial Mechanisms: The state has launched specialized fiscal engines, including the Maritime Development Fund, the Shipbuilding Development Scheme, and the Shipbuilding Financial Assistance Policy, to aggressively attract foreign direct investment.
• The Launch of the Maritime NBFC: To ease structural credit crunches, the state established the Sagarmala Finance Corporation Limited (SFCL), functioning as India’s first dedicated non-banking financial company for the maritime sector.
• Expanding Strategic Project Approvals: The country has demonstrated a shift in regulatory speed by granting swift, in-principle clearances for the multi-billion-dollar greenfield shipyard project in Tamil Nadu, showing that traditional approval bottlenecks can be overcome.

Key Challenges Associated with the Shipbuilding Sector:

• A Heavily Fragmented Industrial Ecosystem: India currently lacks a comprehensive, localized network of ancillary marine suppliers, forcing shipyards to rely on imported components that drive up manufacturing costs.
• Persistent Regulatory and Legal Policy Gaps: A lack of long-term consistency in maritime regulations and unpredictable legal timelines can dampen foreign investor confidence during multi-year projects.
• A Shortage of Specialized Technical Human Capital: The domestic workforce lacks sufficient exposure to cutting-edge automated ship design and advanced marine engineering know-how, creating a critical skills gap.
• High Costs of Domestic Industrial Capital: Indian shipbuilders have traditionally faced high borrowing costs and a shortage of long-term financing options compared to heavily state-subsidized foreign competitors.
• Fierce Competition from Established Asian Giants: Competing against dominant, deeply consolidated global shipbuilding empires—most notably China—presents a massive market challenge for India’s emerging yards.

Way Forward:

• Ensuring Strict Inter-Governmental Follow-Through: State governments, alongside central ministries, must maintain strict timelines to avoid operational bottlenecks and facilitate smooth land and utility clearances for South Korean investors.
• Accelerating Supplier Localization and Anchor Clusters: Leverage the newly established KOMEA Mumbai office to rapidly build localized ancillary hubs, reducing import dependencies for steel fabrication and marine machinery.
• Securing Low-Cost Capital via the Sagarmala Finance Corp: Deploy the financial capacity of the SFCL to offer domestic shipbuilders long-term, low-interest capital loans to match international financing baselines.
• Upgrading Academic and Technical Maritime Institutions: Partner Indian universities and research labs directly with South Korean maritime academies to train a skilled workforce in automated manufacturing and green propulsion.
• Formulating a Sectoral Strategy with Clear Interim Goals: Establish a strict, step-by-step sectoral plan with clear annual production targets to systematically absorb transferred technologies and scale up industrial capacity.

Conclusion:

The landmark agreements signed during President Lee’s 2026 visit offer India a valuable opportunity to absorb cutting-edge technology, build robust manufacturing clusters, and secure long-term foreign capital. Ultimately, by combining these global corporate partnerships with consistent domestic policies and streamlined approvals, India can successfully transform its maritime landscape to become a self-sufficient global shipbuilding powerhouse.

Context: A recent report by the Association for Democratic Reforms (ADR) and National Election Watch (NEW) revealed that 31% of sitting Rajya Sabha MPs have declared criminal cases, with 16% facing serious criminal charges.

About Rajya Sabha and Criminalisation:

What It Is?

• Criminalisation of politics refers to the increasing participation and election of individuals with pending criminal cases, including serious offences, to legislative bodies such as the Rajya Sabha.

Key Findings and Data:

• 31% (70 of 226) analysed Rajya Sabha MPs have declared criminal cases, while 16% (37 MPs) face serious criminal charges.
• Among them, 1 MP declared a murder case, 4 MPs declared attempt to murder cases, and 4 MPs disclosed cases related to crimes against women.
• The analysis covered 226 of 233 MPs; four Rajya Sabha seats were vacant and affidavits of three MPs were unavailable.
• Party-wise, criminal cases were declared by 26% of BJP MPs, 41% of Congress MPs, 22% of TMC MPs, 25% of DMK MPs, and 50% of Samajwadi Party MPs.
• 14% (31 MPs) are billionaires with assets exceeding ₹100 crore, highlighting the growing concentration of wealth among Rajya Sabha members.

Significance:

• The findings raise concerns about the criminalisation of politics, affecting public trust, ethical governance, and the credibility of democratic institutions.
• They reinforce the need for electoral reforms, including faster disposal of criminal cases against legislators, greater transparency, and stronger accountability mechanisms.

Relevance in UPSC Exam Syllabus

• GS Paper II (Polity & Governance):

• • Parliament and State Legislatures, Representation of the People
  • Electoral Reforms, Transparency and Accountability in Governance

• GS Paper IV (Ethics, Integrity & Aptitude):

• • Ethics in Public Life, Integrity and Probity in Governance
  • Accountability, Transparency, Ethical Leadership and Public Trust

Context: The Defence Research & Development Organisation (DRDO) has officially handed over the Final Operational Clearance (FOC) certificate of the indigenous ‘Netra’ Airborne Early Warning and Control (AEW&C) system to the Indian Air Force (IAF).

About Netra Airborne Early Warning and Control System:

What It Is?

• Netra is an indigenous Airborne Early Warning and Control (AEW&C) system that functions as a flying radar station, detecting, tracking, and identifying airborne and maritime threats beyond the reach of ground-based radars.

Developed By: Developed by the Centre for Airborne Systems (CABS) under DRDO, in collaboration with the Indian Air Force (IAF) and Indian defence industry partners.

Aim:

• To strengthen India’s indigenous airborne surveillance capabilities and reduce dependence on imported AEW&C systems.
• To enhance the IAF’s ability to monitor borders, detect aerial threats, and support network-centric combat operations.

Key Features:

• ERJ-145 Airframe: Based on a modified twin-engine Embraer ERJ-145 with upgraded electrical, cooling, and aerodynamic systems for mission equipment.
• AESA Radar: Dorsal-mounted AESA radar provides 240°–270° coverage with a detection range of 250–375 km, depending on target size.
• Multi-Target Tracking: Simultaneously detects and tracks over 200 aerial targets, including fighter aircraft, cruise missiles, and UAVs.
• Sensor Fusion: Integrates Electronic Support Measures (ESM) and Communication Support Measures (CSM) to detect enemy radar and communication signals.
• Extended Endurance: Equipped with an In-Flight Refueling (IFR) probe, enabling longer airborne surveillance missions.
• Identification Friend or Foe (IFF): Indigenous MK-XII(S) IFF system identifies and classifies friendly and hostile aircraft.
• Network-Centric Warfare: Uses Electronic Warfare (EW) systems and Software-Defined Radios (SDRs) for secure, encrypted communication and self-protection.
• Ground Exploitation Station (GES): Transfers real-time data through LOS/SATCOM links to the Integrated Air Command and Control System (IACCS).

Significance:

• Netra has proven its operational effectiveness during the 2019 Balakot airstrikes, 2020 India-China standoff, and Operation Sindoor (2025).

• Achieving Final Operational Clearance (FOC) places India among a handful of nations capable of developing and operating an indigenous Airborne Early Warning & Control (AEW&C) system.

Context: The Ministry of Civil Aviation and Delhi International Airport Limited (DIAL) launched AIR SUVIDHA 2.0, an upgraded online health screening portal for international arriving passengers.

About The AIR SUVIDHA 2.0 Portal:

What It Is?

• AIR SUVIDHA 2.0 is an upgraded, fully contactless, and paperless passenger health self-declaration web portal. It serves as a digital health checkpoint that automates the screening of incoming international travelers to prevent the cross-border transmission of infectious diseases into India.

Organizations Involved: Jointly launched by the Ministry of Civil Aviation and Delhi International Airport Limited (DIAL).

Aim:

• The portal aims to reinforce public health surveillance at all Points of Entry (PoEs) in India.
• By replacing legacy paper screening, it focuses on identifying, tracking, and isolating at-risk travelers originating from or transiting through high-risk Ebola transmission zones while maintaining a fast, seamless airport arrival experience.

Key Features of the Portal:

• Mandatory Digital Self-Declaration: Requires all incoming international passengers to complete an online Self-Declaration Form (SDF) covering a detailed 21-day travel history, exposure risks, and active symptom mapping.
• Advance Timeline Window: Passengers can access the portal and log their health records up to 24 hours in advance of their scheduled arrival in India (ideally during flight web check-in).
• Contactless QR and PDF Validation: Eliminates physical paperwork on landing. Passengers simply show the downloaded digital SDF PDF or QR receipt at the designated International Travel Health Desks or Immigration counters.
• Integrated Multi-Agency Data Pipeline: Operates an automated, real-time data-sharing network that instantly streams traveler health logs to:

• • Airport Health Officers (APHOs)
  • The Bureau of Immigration
  • State Surveillance Officers
  • The Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP)

Significance:

• Integration with IDSP enables rapid quarantine, medical referral, and contact tracing by alerting health authorities before passengers clear customs.
• The standardized digital screening system aligns India’s border health measures with WHO’s IHR (2005), strengthening preparedness for global health emergencies.

Context: The Jammu and Kashmir Police in Anantnag district have launched a technology-driven security initiative named ‘Project Hawk Eye’ for the Shri Amarnath Ji Yatra 2026.

About Project Hawk Eye:

What It Is?

• Project Hawk Eye is an advanced, technology-linked security and surveillance framework deployed to safeguard religious transit corridors. It creates a seamless monitoring loop by combining high-altitude aerial tracking with ground-level biometric systems, specialized tactical units, and fortified static observation posts.

Organizing Agency: The initiative has been conceptualized, rolled out, and managed by the Anantnag District Police of the Jammu and Kashmir Police force.

Aim and Objectives:

• Continuous Vigilance: Provide 24×7 surveillance across vulnerable stretches of the Yatra route.
• Preventive Security: Enable early detection of suspicious activities for rapid response by security forces.
• Safe Pilgrimage: Ensure pilgrim safety, effective crowd management, and smooth conduct of the Yatra.

Key Features:

• Aerial Drone Grid: Deploys five advanced drones at key locations along the route to feed live aerial surveillance footage to command centers, maximizing situational awareness.
• Facial Recognition System (FRS): Integrates cutting-edge FRS software at critical choke points to cross-reference traveler profiles and automatically flag blacklisted or suspicious entities in real time.
• High-Density CCTV Coverage: Operates a network of 416 high-resolution closed-circuit television (CCTV) cameras positioned at sensitive transit sections to provide continuous ground-level monitoring.
• Machan Morchas (Vantage Posts): Establishes 28 strategically positioned observation posts at highly vulnerable or elevated locations to act as static watchtowers for ground forces.
• Sharpshooter Deployment: Deploys 22 specially trained sniper teams at designated high-altitude points to provide specialized counter-terror support and immediate tactical response capabilities.

Significance:

• Uses drones, FRS, and AI-enabled cameras to detect threats early, shifting security from reactive to preventive policing.
• Combines aerial and ground surveillance to eliminate blind spots and ensure seamless monitoring in difficult Himalayan terrain.

Context: Jammu & Kashmir Chief Minister forwarded a proposal to the Union Ministry of Culture to nominate Kashmir’s Sufiyana Music for UNESCO’s Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) list.

About Kashmir’s Sufiyana Music:

What It Is?

• Kashmir’s Sufiyana Music (also known as Sufiyana Mausiki or Sufiyana Kalam) is a distinctive form of classical choral ensemble music. It is a highly structured, mystical art form that blends devotional poetry, classical melody, and philosophy, serving as a unique bridge between Persian, Central Asian, and Indian classical musical systems.

Region Associated:

• The art form is entirely indigenous and exclusive to the Kashmir Valley in the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir.
• Historically, it is preserved and carried forward by a select few surviving gharanas (traditional musical lineages or schools) located across Budgam, Srinagar, and Anantnag.

History and Cultural Fusion:

• Origins: The art form emerged between the 14th and 15th centuries as a continuum of pre-Islamic musical practices in Kashmir.
• Civilizational Synthesis: Rather than replacing existing local systems, the incoming traditions merged with indigenous practices. It represents a rare cultural synthesis of Persian, Islamic, and Shaivite philosophical thought.
• Central Asian Influx: As Kashmir opened up to the wider Islamic world, Sufi saints, scholars, artisans, and musicians arriving from regions like Iran, Bukhara, and Samarkand introduced new structural ideas that shaped Kashmir’s unique classical music.

Key Features of Sufiyana Music:

• Choral and Multi-Instrumental Ensemble: It is performed by a group of five to seven musicians who simultaneously act as both vocalists and instrumentalists.
• The Structural Sequence: Most compositions open with an instrumental prelude, followed by a short poem sung free-hand without rhythm. The main lyrics, known as Bathe, are presented in the form of a couplet that adheres strictly to a designated maqam and tala (rhythmic cycle).
• The Maqam System: Similar to Indian ragas, the music is bound by maqams rooted in Persian classical traditions. While historically boasting around 50 distinct maqams, only 20 to 25 are actively practiced today.
• Rhythmic Progression: Performance arrangements follow a mathematical sequence where the longest talas (time cycles) are gradually followed by progressively shorter ones.
• Specialized Acoustic Instruments: The ensemble utilizes a highly specific array of traditional instruments, each possessing a distinct tonal quality determined by its unique dimensions and string counts. These include the ney (a type of flute), harmonium, rabab, tabla, and sitar.
• The 100-String Santoor: Central to the performance is the Sufiana santoor, a unique Kashmiri hammer-stringed instrument featuring 100 strings spread over a triangular-shaped, three-legged stand.
• Oral Transmission: The complex system of maqams, talas, and accompanying poetry is not codified in text; instead, it is passed down entirely orally from one generation to the next within specialized families.

Context: Iraq, the second-largest crude producer in OPEC, has threatened to withdraw from the oil cartel unless its production quota is substantially raised to meet its domestic economic and rebuilding needs.

About OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries):

What It Is?

• OPEC is a permanent intergovernmental organization of major oil-exporting countries that coordinates petroleum policies to stabilize global oil markets and crude prices.

Establishment & Evolution:

• Baghdad Conference (1960): Founded on 14 September 1960 by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela.
• Headquarters: Moved from Geneva, Switzerland, to Vienna, Austria, in 1965.
• Petroleum Policy (1968): Adopted a declaration affirming member states’ sovereignty over natural resources.
• OPEC Fund (1976): Established the OPEC Fund for International Development (OFID) to support developing countries.
• OPEC+ (2016): Partnered with major non-OPEC producers, including Russia, under the Declaration of Cooperation (DoC) to coordinate oil output.

Recent Exited Members:

• Qatar (2019): Left to focus on LNG.
• Ecuador (2020): Withdrew to increase oil production.
• Angola (2024): Exited over production quota disputes.
• United Arab Emirates (2026): Left to pursue an independent production strategy.

Aims

• Policy Coordination: Coordinate petroleum policies to ensure stable oil markets and fair prices.
• Energy Security: Ensure a regular and reliable supply of petroleum to consumers.
• Investment Returns: Safeguard fair returns for investments in the oil sector.

Key Functions of the Cartel:

• Production Quota Allocation: OPEC monitors global oil demand and adjusts supply by assigning specific, mandatory production caps and baselines to each member country to prevent oversupply or shortages.
• Utilizing Pricing Reference Baskets: The group introduces and manages an official Reference Basket for crude pricing to evaluate and mitigate global price volatility.
• Enforcing Supply Reductions: In times of global economic slumps or pandemics, the group coordinates large-scale, voluntary production adjustments to clear global oil gluts and preserve capital.
• Navigating Climate Policy: The group tracks global environmental negotiations, participates in UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) COPs, and models long-term investment strategies grounded in real-world energy data.

Significance:

• OPEC influences global oil prices, affecting inflation, energy security, and economic stability.
• Growing production by non-OPEC countries, especially U.S. shale oil, has reduced OPEC’s market influence.

Context: The Chief Ministers of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana achieved an administrative consensus to protect farming interests and pursue desilting operations in the Tungabhadra basin.

About The Tungabhadra River:

What It Is?

• The Tungabhadra River is a major, perennial right-bank tributary of the Krishna River. It is a vital hydrological lifeline for the Deccan peninsula, supporting extensive agricultural networks, industrial clusters, and urban centers across southern India.

Location and Basin States:

• Geographical Region: Situated in the semi-arid, central-southern plateau of the Indian Deccan peninsula.
• States Flown Through: The river and its tributaries flow primarily through Karnataka, before tracing the border with Telangana and entering Andhra Pradesh to merge with the Krishna River.

Origin and Confluence:

• The Source Streams: The river originates as two separate rivers, the Tunga and the Bhadra, in the Western Ghats.
  • The Tunga originates near Varaha Parvatha at Kurasa, and the Bhadra originates at Gangamoola near Kudremukh in the Chikkamagaluru district of Karnataka.
• The Sacred Confluence: The two streams flow independently eastward before merging at Kudli, a village near Shivamogga city in Karnataka, officially creating the single Tungabhadra River.
• Final Destination: After flowing roughly northeast for about 531 km, the river joins the Krishna River at Sangamaleshwaram in the Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh.

Key Features:

• Tungabhadra Reservoir (Pampa Sagar): A major inter-state dam near Hosapete, Karnataka, regulating water sharing. Heavy siltation (about 33 TMCFT) has reduced its storage capacity.
• Distinct River Geomorphology: The Tunga flows through steep, fast-moving channels, while the Bhadra has a wider, gentler valley. Both traverse ancient granitic and crystalline rocks.
• Rich Ecological Corridor: The basin stretches from the evergreen Western Ghats to the dry Deccan plains, supporting species such as the smooth-coated otter and Mugger crocodile.
• Vijayanagara Irrigation Heritage: The river hosts centuries-old stone anicuts and irrigation canals built by the Vijayanagara Empire, many of which remain functional.

Significance:

• Supplies irrigation to the dry regions of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, supporting major rice-growing districts through Left and Right Bank canals.
• Provides water for industries, power plants, mining, and drinking water needs across numerous towns and villages in the Deccan region.