UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 11 December 2025

UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 11 December 2025 covers important current affairs of the day, their backward linkages, their relevance for Prelims exam and MCQs on main articles

 

InstaLinks : Insta Links help you think beyond the current affairs issue and help you think multidimensionally to develop depth in your understanding of these issues. These linkages provided in this ‘hint’ format help you frame possible questions in your mind that might arise(or an examiner might imagine) from each current event. InstaLinks also connect every issue to their static or theoretical background.

Table of Contents

GS Paper 1:

1. Decline of Indus Valley Civilisation

GS Paper 2:

2. Generative AI & Copyright – One Nation, One License, One Payment

Content for Mains Enrichment (CME):

1. Nnena Kalu: The Quiet Revolution Behind the Turner Prize

Facts for Prelims (FFP):

1. Planetary-Defense Exercise on 3I/ATLAS

2. Deepavali on UNESCO’s Intangible Cultural Heritage List

3. Shilp Didi Programme

4. Q-day

5. UNEP Champions of the Earth Award – 2025

6. Western Tragopan

Mapping:

1. Sea of Japan

UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 11 December 2025

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GS Paper 1:

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Decline of Indus Valley Civilisation

Source: IE

Subject: History

Context: A new multi-proxy paleoclimate study has claimed that the Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC) declined due to centuries-long recurring droughts, not a single catastrophic event.

About Decline of Indus Valley Civilisation:

What it is?

• The Indus Valley Civilisation (3300–1300 BCE), also called Harappan Civilisation, was one of the world’s earliest urban cultures spread across present-day Pakistan and northwest India.
• It originated along the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra (Sarasvati) river systems, evolving into a sophisticated Bronze Age civilisation known for cities like Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Rakhigarhi and Dholavira.

Features of Indus Valley Civilisation:

• Art & Craft:
  • Highly developed craftsmanship in bead-making, pottery, terracotta figurines, shell–copper–bronze artefacts, and the iconic “Dancing Girl” and “Priest-King” sculptures.
• Architecture & Urban Planning:
  • World-class urban design with grid-pattern streets, multi-storey brick houses, citadels, granaries, and advanced drainage with covered sewerage and soak pits.
• Script & Literature:
  • Used a still-undeciphered pictographic script found on seals, tablets and pottery; no surviving textual literature, but inscriptions show a complex symbolic system.
• Economy:
  • A diversified economy based on agriculture (wheat, barley, cotton), craft industries, internal trade, and long-distance trade with Mesopotamia, Oman and Iran (evident from seals, weights and boats).
• Society & Governance:
  • Urban society with standardised weights, uniform architecture, and planned layouts, implying an efficient civic authority; evidence suggests a largely peaceful, egalitarian society with little social stratification.

Decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation:

New Evidence from 2025 Study:

• Decline was gradual, triggered by four major mega-droughts (2425–1400 BCE):

• • The study identifies four prolonged drought phases, each lasting over 85 years, with the most severe one peaking around 1733 BCE for nearly 164 years.
  • These droughts did not occur once but in cycles, creating centuries of hydrological instability, which progressively weakened agriculture, trade, and urban functioning.

• Weakening monsoons due to warming of the tropical Pacific:

• • Climate records show that the tropical Pacific shifted from a cool, La Niña-like phase (3000–2500 BCE) to a warmer, El Niño-like phase.
  • This directly reduced monsoon rainfall by 10–20%, drastically lowering water availability for fields, reservoirs, and rivers.

• Hydrological changes: rivers shrank and soils dried up:

• • The study combines lake cores, cave stalagmites, and climate models to show that rivers like the Sutlej-Ghaggar system, Beas, and many tributaries experienced reduced flows.
  • Soil moisture declined, leading to desiccation, salinity build-up, and reduced crop yields — especially in areas away from the Indus River.

• Impact on agriculture and food systems:

• • Crop failures increased, forcing Harappans to shift from water-intensive crops (wheat, barley) to drought-resistant ones like millets.
  • Agricultural stress weakened the surplus system that supported large urban centres.

• Breakdown of long-distance trade and economic networks:

• • Lower river levels made river navigation difficult, reducing connectivity to Mesopotamia, the primary trade partner.
  • Reduced rainfall and shrinking lakes also made overland routes riskier.
  • This decline in external trade undermined urban jobs (bead makers, potters, metalworkers), destabilising the economic base.

Other Classical Theories:

• Changes in River Systems (Indus & Ghaggar-Hakra shifts)

• • Tectonic movement altered the courses of key rivers.
  • The Ghaggar-Hakra (Sarasvati) dried gradually, leading to the abandonment of major settlements like Kalibangan and Banawali.
  • The Indus River occasionally flooded massively, depositing silt and destroying fields, while later shifting away from some cities.

• Collapse of Mesopotamian Trade Network:

• • Around 2000 BCE, Mesopotamia faced internal political turmoil (Akkadian collapse, Ur III decline).
  • As Mesopotamian trade weakened, demand for Harappan goods (beads, cotton textiles, metals) fell sharply.
  • Reduced trade cut off a crucial economic pillar of urban Harappan life, contributing to industrial decline.

• Urban Overcrowding and Declining Civic Maintenance:

• • Archaeology shows that many cities became densely crowded, with houses built over older streets and structures.
  • The once-pristine drainage systems became clogged and poorly maintained, signalling administrative weakening.
  • Public buildings like the Great Bath were built over or lost importance.

• No Evidence of Large-Scale Invasion or Warfare:

• • Earlier theories proposed “Aryan invasion” based on Rig Veda references, but archaeology contradicts this:
    • No mass graves indicating war.
    • No burnt cities or weapons of destruction.
    • Harappan society overall shows little militarisation.
  • Most scholars now agree that invasion did not cause the collapse.

Significance of Indus Valley Civilisation:

• Gave India its first planned cities, sanitation systems and urban governance models.
• Demonstrated advanced hydrology, craft specialisation, maritime trade, and agricultural adaptation.
• Offers lessons for today on water management, climate resilience, and decentralised settlement planning.
• Its peaceful culture and standardised systems highlight early forms of civil administration, trade regulation and environmental adaptation.

Conclusion:

The new scientific findings show that the Indus collapse was not a mystery or a myth but a slow climatic tragedy worsened by fragile governance and economic stress. Yet the civilisation’s adaptability for nearly two millennia underscores its resilience and sophistication. As today’s world faces climate extremes, the Indus story serves as a powerful reminder that environmental shifts can reshape even the greatest urban cultures.

 

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UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 11 December 2025 GS Paper 2:

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Generative AI & Copyright – One Nation, One License, One Payment

Source: HT

Subject: Government Policies and Interventions for Development in various sectors

Context: The Government released the Working Paper on Generative AI & Copyright – One Nation, One License, One Payment, proposing India’s first structured model for regulating AI training on copyrighted works.

• It aims to balance creator rights and AI innovation, following rising disputes like ANI vs OpenAI (Delhi HC, 2024–25) over unauthorized training on Indian content.

About Generative AI & Copyright – One Nation, One License, One Payment:

What is the Issue?

• Unlicensed use of Indian creative content for AI training: GenAI models scrape Indian books, articles, films, music and news without permission, undermining creator rights and violating Section 14 protections.

Eg: ANI alleged OpenAI used its news content for training ChatGPT without consent, triggering Delhi HC proceedings.

• Lack of clarity on applicability of copyright law to GenAI training: India’s Copyright Act has no explicit Text & Data Mining (TDM) exception, creating ambiguity on whether large-scale scraping is permissible.

Eg: Section 52 exceptions do not cover commercial AI training, leaving foreign AI developers operating in a legal grey zone.

• No mechanism for creators to receive compensation from AI usage: Indian writers, artists, musicians and journalists gain nothing even though their works significantly improve AI model accuracy and quality.

Eg: India’s informal music industry employing 1.4 crore people earns zero royalties despite models using their songs for training.

• Risk of cultural dilution & decline of indigenous creative sectors: AI outputs may replace or overshadow Indian folk art, local music and regional storytelling traditions, eroding cultural diversity.
• Unequal bargaining power between big-tech AI firms and Indian creators: Large foreign AI companies monetise Indian datasets while individual creators lack negotiation capacity or legal tools to protect rights.

Eg: OpenAI itself stated India is its 2nd-largest market, yet no Indian creator currently receives any share of this revenue.

Key Concerns Identified by the Working Group:

• Whether AI training constitutes reproduction and thus copyright infringement: AI training requires copying, storing and transforming large volumes of works, which may trigger infringement under Section 14.

Eg: Delhi High Court is examining if ChatGPT’s use of ANI’s content amounts to unauthorised reproduction.

• Whether the ‘fair dealing’ exception can legally cover GenAI training: Fair dealing is narrowly defined for private research, criticism, or reporting—not for commercial AI model training at industrial scale.

Eg: Commercial LLM developers cannot invoke Section 52(1)(a), as training is revenue-driven and not “personal use”.

• Disadvantage & exploitation risk for small and independent creators: Opt-out or negotiated licensing frameworks disproportionately favour big publishers, leaving small creators unprotected.
• Heavy transparency burden on AI developers if disclosure is mandated: Requiring detailed dataset disclosures could slow AI advancement, especially for start-ups lacking compliance capacity.

Eg: IndiaAI-supported startups like Sarvam and Gan AI rely on flexible data access to compete with global players.

• Threat of poor-quality or biased datasets if creators withhold works: Excessive opt-outs may shrink datasets, increasing bias and hallucination risks in India-focused AI systems.

Need for India to Balance Copyright & AI Framework:

• Protect India’s rapidly growing creative and cultural economy: Creative industries contribute billions to GDP and sustain livelihoods across entertainment, design, folk and digital media sectors.

Eg: India’s M&E sector is projected to reach B by 2027, making protection of creative rights economically essential.

• Foster AI innovation aligned with IndiaAI Mission goals: Balanced rules ensure that AI developers—especially Indian start-ups—have predictable, lawful access to high-quality datasets.

Eg: IndiaAI Mission’s rollout of 38,000 subsidised GPUs depends on a stable legal framework for training data.

• Prevent decline of human creativity and preserve cultural diversity: If AI freely mines creative works without reward, long-term incentives for creators weaken, risking cultural hollowing.

Eg: PM Modi’s ‘Orange Economy’ vision stresses India’s unique storytelling heritage that must be preserved in the AI era.

• Ensure fair revenue-sharing for Indian creators whose works train AI: AI firms earn from Indian users; creators deserve statutory royalties to maintain creative ecosystems.
  Eg: OpenAI confirmed India is its 2nd-largest market—yet creators receive zero compensation today.
• Support Indian startups & MSMEs with low-cost, low-friction AI licensing: A predictable licensing regime reduces transaction costs and enables small players to innovate without legal uncertainty.

Recommendations of the Working Committee:

• Introduce a Mandatory Blanket License for AI Training: AI developers may train on all lawfully accessed copyrighted works without individual permissions, ensuring wide dataset access.

Eg: Indian LLMs (Sarvam, Gan AI, Soket) can legally train on diverse Indian content across languages and formats.

• Statutory Royalty Payments to Copyright Holders: Creators will receive compensation proportional to AI revenues, ensuring long-term sustenance of the creative economy.

Eg: India’s 1.4 crore informal music workers would gain an organised income stream from AI-driven usage.

• Establish the “Copyright Royalties Collective for AI Training (CRCAT)”: A central, government-designated body to collect licence fees and distribute royalties to members and non-members alike.
• Create a Government-Appointed Royalty Rate-Setting Committee: Ensures transparency, fairness, periodic review and judicial oversight of royalty rates to protect both creators and developers.
• Provide a Single-Window, Low-Burden Licensing & Compliance System: One licence → one payment → nationwide applicability to reduce friction, especially for smaller AI players.

Conclusion:

India stands at a critical intersection where AI growth and creative rights must advance together. The “One Nation, One License, One Payment” model proposes a fair, innovation-friendly, creator-protective solution. If adopted, it can make India a global leader by building an AI ecosystem rooted in fairness, cultural respect, and technological strength.

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UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 11 December 2025 Content for Mains Enrichment (CME)

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Nnena Kalu: The Quiet Revolution Behind the Turner Prize

Anecdote: Nnena Kalu’s journey to the Turner Prize began in a small London studio, where she expressed herself through twisting fabric and VHS tape because she speaks very little. For many years, she worked quietly, supported by ActionSpace, a group that helps artists with learning disabilities. Her first big break came in 2016 in Belgium, followed by a show at Glasgow International in 2018. But it was her cocoon-like installation at Manifesta 15 in Barcelona that caught everyone’s attention. When she finally won the Turner Prize in 2025, her studio manager called it a “seismic” moment after a lifetime of challenges. Her win showed that neurodivergent art is powerful and deserves equal respect. It helped erase the line between artists who are neurotypical and those who are neurodiverse. Kalu’s story proves that patience, support, and genuine creativity can change how the world sees art.

Relevance in the UPSC Exam Syllabus:

• GS-II (Vulnerable Sections & Social Justice):

• • Shows global push for disability rights, inclusion, and breaking stigma—relevant to disability legislation & UNCRPD.

• GS-IV Ethics (Attitude, Inclusivity, Empathy):

• • Demonstrates values of empathy, dignity, compassion, and societal responsibility toward neurodivergent individuals.

• Essay Paper:

• • Useful for themes on equality, creativity, inclusivity, neurodiversity, and dismantling social barriers.

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UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 11 December 2025 Facts for Prelims (FFP)

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Planetary-Defense Exercise on 3I/ATLAS

Source: WION

Subject: Science and Technology

Context: Europe has launched the world’s largest planetary-defence drill, centred on tracking the fast-approaching object 3I/ATLAS.

About Planetary-Defense Exercise on 3I/ATLAS:

• What it is?
  • The 3I/ATLAS planetary-defense drill is the largest global simulation ever conducted to test how nations detect, track and respond to near-Earth threats.
• Launched By: Led jointly by ESA, NASA, UN-IAWN (International Asteroid Warning Network).
• Aim:
  • To evaluate Earth’s readiness for high-velocity objects by testing early-warning systems, tracking networks, emergency coordination and citizen communication.
  • Also aims to identify gaps in international cooperation, data-sharing and psychological preparedness.
• How It Works?
  • Tracking 3I/ATLAS: Agencies use ground telescopes and space-based sensors to continuously monitor the comet’s position, speed and brightness, refining its orbital path in real time.
  • Analysing Trajectory Shifts: Scientists test for small deviations caused by gravity or solar forces, updating orbital models to identify any change that could alter its distance from Earth.
  • Calculating Impact Probabilities: Thousands of simulations are run with different uncertainty ranges to determine whether the object could intersect Earth’s orbit or remain safely distant.
  • Running Global Response Scenarios: Teams simulate options such as deflection missions, civil-defence mobilisation or evacuation modelling to test operational readiness under pressure.
  • Testing International Coordination: The drill evaluates how quickly NASA, ESA, ISRO, CNSA, JAXA and UN-IAWN exchange data, issue alerts and take joint decisions during high-uncertainty events.
• Key Features:

• • Real object (3I/ATLAS) travelling at ~60 km/s provides real-world complexity.
  • Involves planetary-defense modelling, orbital prediction drills and anomaly-response protocols.
  • Includes public-communication modules, addressing misinformation and psychological preparedness.
  • Uses multi-agency coordination, including defense space commands.
  • Parallel geopolitical coordination amid ESA’s record budget and U.S.–China–India moves in space security.

• Significance:

• • Strengthens global readiness for future asteroid threats — a rising planetary-security concern.
  • Exposes systemic weaknesses like absence of a global public-guidance system during space anomalies.

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Deepavali on UNESCO’s Intangible Cultural Heritage List

Source: UNESCO

Subject: International Organisation

Context: Deepavali has been officially inscribed on UNESCO’s Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity during the 20th Session of the Intergovernmental Committee in New Delhi.

About Deepavali on UNESCO’s Intangible Cultural Heritage List:

• What it is?
  • Deepavali is a multi-regional, multi-faith festival symbolising light over darkness, hope, renewal and community harmony, celebrated across India and the global diaspora.
• Historical Roots:
  • With references in Itihasas, Puranas and regional traditions, Deepavali commemorates diverse legends—return of Rama to Ayodhya, Krishna’s victory over Narakasura, worship of Lakshmi, and harvest rituals—reflecting India’s cultural pluralism.
• Key Features of Deepavali as Living Heritage:

• • Social practice: Lighting diyas, rangoli, community feasts, rituals and intergenerational transmission of customs.
  • People-centric festival: Sustained by potters, artisans, farmers, sweet-makers, florists and priests, forming a vast cultural-livelihood ecosystem.
  • Diaspora celebrations: Celebrated across Southeast Asia, Africa, Europe, the Gulf and the Caribbean, strengthening India’s cultural diplomacy.
  • Values embodied: Inclusivity, unity, generosity, wellbeing and the moral ideal of Tamso Ma Jyotirgamaya.

About Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH):

• What it is?
  • ICH refers to living traditions, expressions, rituals, performing arts, craftsmanship and knowledge systems that communities recognise as part of their cultural identity.
• Origin:
  • UNESCO adopted the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (2003), which came into force in 2006; India ratified it in 2005.
• Aim: To safeguard living heritage, support practitioners, promote cultural diversity, transmission, community participation and intercultural dialogue.
• Features of the ICH Framework:

• • Community-based: Heritage must be recognised by the communities who practise it.
  • Dynamic & living: Includes traditional and contemporary expressions adapting across time.
  • Five domains: Oral traditions, performing arts, social practices & rituals, knowledge concerning nature, and craftsmanship.
  • Representative List: Highlights practices that contribute to humanity’s cultural diversity.
  • Safeguarding Measures: States must inventory, conserve, support practitioners and report periodically.

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Shilp Didi Programme

Source: News on Air

Subject: Government Scheme

Context: The Union Textiles Secretary announced that the Shilp Didi Programme has significantly boosted women artisans’ income, with some earning over ₹5 lakh.

About Shilp Didi Programme:

• What it is?
  • A government initiative to economically empower women artisans (“Shilp Didis”) by providing training, digital skills, and market access, including e-commerce platforms and physical exhibitions.
• Launched In: 2024 (100-day pilot phase began in June 2024).
• Implemented By: Ministry of Textiles, through the Office of the Development Commissioner (Handicrafts).
• Aim: To make women artisans financially independent, improve design and business skills, and help them leverage modern marketing and entrepreneurship tools.
• Key Features:

• • E-training modules (entrepreneurship, regulatory compliance, social media, e-commerce onboarding).
  • Marketing opportunities via Dilli Haat, craft fairs, and curated events.
  • E-commerce integration for nationwide and global visibility.
  • Baseline inclusion of 100 women artisans from 72 districts across 23 states.
  • Covers 30 diverse handicrafts (textiles, pottery, metal crafts, embroidery, etc.).
  • Capacity-building through National Handicrafts Development Programme (NHDP) clusters.

• Significance:

• • Provides sustainable livelihoods and boosts rural/non-farm incomes.
  • Strengthens micro-entrepreneurship among women in the handicrafts sector.
  • Enhances digital inclusion—artisans use social media & e-commerce to expand markets.

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Q-day

Source: TH

Subject: Science and Technology

Context: Google’s new Quantum Echoes experiment using the 65-qubit Willow processor has sparked global debate on whether it accelerates the arrival of Q-day.

About Q-day:

• What it is?
  • Q-day refers to the moment when a cryptographically relevant quantum computer becomes powerful enough to break widely used encryption systems such as RSA-2048, threatening global digital security.
• Background:
  • The fear stems from Shor’s algorithm (1994), which showed that a sufficiently large quantum computer could factor large numbers exponentially faster, breaking the mathematics behind today’s public-key cryptography.
• Key Features of Q-Day Risk:
  • Breaks RSA & ECC: Quantum computers could factor keys and compromise global internet security.
  • Harvest Now, Decrypt Later: Hackers/governments may store encrypted data today and decrypt it later.
  • Requires millions of logical qubits: Current machines have only hundreds of noisy qubits — far from attack capability.
  • Triggers Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC): Push for quantum-safe algorithms like CRYSTALS-Kyber & Dilithium (standardised by NIST).
• Significance:
  • Global cybersecurity transition: Banks, governments, military networks and cloud systems must shift to PQC before the end of this decade.
  • Strategic & geopolitical implications: Nations see PQC as the next digital infrastructure race.
  • Long-term digital safety: Prevents future mass data breaches, identity theft, and compromise of national security communications.

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UNEP Champions of the Earth Award – 2025

Source: UNEP

Subject: Miscellaneous

Context: Supriya Sahu, Additional Chief Secretary of Tamil Nadu, has won the UNEP Champions of the Earth 2025 Award for her leadership in climate mitigation, adaptation, and heat resilience.

About UNEP Champions of the Earth Award – 2025:

• What It Is?
  • The Champions of the Earth award is the UN’s highest environmental honour, conferred annually by UNEP to individuals and organisations exhibiting exceptional environmental leadership.
• Established in:
  • Created in 2005, the award has honoured 127 laureates so far, including heads of state, scientists, activists, youth groups, and grassroots innovators.
• Key Features:

• • Four Award Categories: Policy Leadership, Inspiration & Action, Entrepreneurial Vision, Science & Innovation.
  • Focuses on climate justice, resilient buildings, methane reduction, sustainable cooling, and forest protection (2025 theme).
  • Recognises innovative, community-led and scalable environmental solutions.
  • Aims to motivate global ambitions aligned with the Paris Agreement and SDGs.

• 2025 Winners & Their Contributions:
  • Pacific Islands Students Fighting Climate Change – Policy Leadership

• • • Youth-led NGO that secured a historic ICJ advisory opinion affirming states’ legal duties to prevent climate harm and protect human rights.

• Supriya Sahu (India) – Inspiration & Action

• • • Led Tamil Nadu’s pioneering work in heat adaptation, nature-based solutions, ecosystem restoration, and sustainable cooling.
    • Her initiatives created 2.5 million green jobs, expanded forest cover, and benefited 12 million people, making Tamil Nadu a global climate leader.

• Mariam Issoufou (Niger/France) – Entrepreneurial Vision

• • • Architect transforming Sahelian architecture with passive cooling designs that reduce indoor temperatures by up to 10°C without AC.

• Imazon (Brazil) – Science & Innovation

• • • Research institute using AI-driven geospatial tools to expose illegal deforestation and strengthen Amazon governance.

• Manfredi Caltagirone (Posthumous) – Lifetime Achievement

• • • Former head of UNEP’s International Methane Emissions Observatory; championed global methane transparency.

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Western Tragopan

Source: TH

Subject: Species in News

Context: A captive-breeding programme at Sarahan Pheasantry, Himachal Pradesh, has successfully stabilised the Western Tragopan population, giving conservationists fresh hope.

About Western Tragopan:

• What it is?
  • The Western Tragopan (Tragopan melanocephalus) — also called Jujurana or “king of birds” — is one of the world’s rarest pheasants and the state bird of Himachal Pradesh. It is a flagship species of the Western Himalayas, known for its striking plumage and ecological sensitivity.
• Habitat:

• • Found between 2,400–3,600 m in moist temperate Himalayan forests.
  • Prefers dense undergrowth, ringal bamboo, rhododendron thickets, and conifer forests.
  • Key strongholds include Great Himalayan National Park (GHNP), Kazinag, Limber (J&K), and pockets in Uttarakhand and northern Pakistan.

• IUCN Status:

• • Listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List.
  • Only 3,000–9,500 mature individuals remain, all forming a single fragile sub-population.

• Key Characteristics:

• • Male: Velvet-black head, crimson breast, white spotting, and colourful blue–orange facial wattles used in elaborate mating displays.
  • Female: Brown, camouflaged, smaller; immature males resemble females.
  • Ground-dwelling, shy, active at dawn/dusk; feeds on berries, seeds, buds, shoots, and insects.
  • Breeds during May–June, laying 3–5 eggs in concealed nests.

• Significance:

• • An indicator species of high-altitude forest health.
  • Cultural symbol of Himachal Pradesh.
  • Captive breeding at Sarahan Pheasantry has produced over 40+ individuals, offering insurance against extinction.

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UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 11 December 2025 Mapping:

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Sea of Japan

Source: BS

Subject: Mapping

Context: Two U.S. B-52 nuclear-capable bombers conducted joint drills with Japanese F-35 and F-15 jets over the Sea of Japan, marking Washington’s first show of force after China–Russia bomber and naval exercises near Japan and South Korea.

About Sea of Japan:

• What it is?
  • The Sea of Japan is a major marginal sea of the western Pacific Ocean, characterised by a deep, semi-enclosed basin with restricted water exchange through narrow straits.
• Location: It lies between Japan and Sakhalin Island to the east, and Russia and the Korean Peninsula to the west, covering about 978,000 sq. km with a mean depth of 1,752 m.
• Neighbouring Nations:

• • Japan (to the east)
  • Russia (to the north & northwest)
  • North Korea & South Korea (to the west/southwest)

• Physiographic Features:

• • Almost elliptical, oriented southwest–northeast.
  • Connected to adjacent seas via the Korea Strait, Tsushima Strait, Tsugaru Strait, La Perouse Strait, and Kanmon Strait.
  • Divided into Japan Basin (north), Yamato Basin (southeast), and Tsushima Basin (southwest).
  • Japanese side has wider continental shelves, ridges and banks (e.g., Sado Ridge, Oki Ridge, Hakusan Banks).

Japan Border Issues with China and Russia:

• China – East China Sea Disputes:

• • The core flashpoint is the Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands, controlled by Japan but claimed by China.

• Russia – Northern Territories/Kuril Islands Issue:

• • Japan claims the Southern Kurils (Iturup, Kunashir, Shikotan, Habomai), calling them the Northern Territories.

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