UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 26 September 2025

UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 26 September 2025 covers important current affairs of the day, their backward linkages, their relevance for Prelims exam and MCQs on main articles

 

InstaLinks :  Insta Links help you think beyond the  current affairs issue and help you think multidimensionally to develop depth in your understanding of these issues. These linkages provided in this ‘hint’ format help you frame possible questions in your mind that might arise(or an examiner might imagine) from each current event. InstaLinks also connect every issue to their static or theoretical background.

Table of Contents 

GS Paper 3 : (UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 26 September (2025)

1. Counterfeit Seeds & GI Crops like Basmati

2. Cooling Rights in a Sweltering South

 Content for Mains Enrichment (CME):

1. MoSPI Comprehensive Modular Survey: Education 2025

Facts for Prelims (FFP):

1. Dolmens of Kodaikanal

2. MiG-21

3. Central American Integration System (SICA)

4. HSBC–IBM Quantum-Enabled Algorithmic Trading

5. The World Para Athletics Championships 2025

6. 2G Ethanol

 Mapping:

1. IUCN Recognises Dugong Conservation Reserve in Palk Bay

UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 26 September 2025

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GS Paper 3:

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Counterfeit Seeds & GI Crops like Basmati

Syllabus: Agriculture

Source:  LM

Context: The government unveiled a plan to combat counterfeit and substandard seed fraud threatening GI-tagged crops like Basmati rice.

• The strategy includes digital seed traceability (SATHI system) and an amendment to the Seeds Act, 1966, to safeguard farmers and protect India’s agricultural reputation.

About Counterfeit Seeds & GI Crops like Basmati:

Significance of GI Crops like Basmati:

• Export value: Basmati rice contributes nearly 60% of India’s rice export earnings, making it a vital foreign exchange earner. Its premium brand positioning enhances India’s dominance in the global rice trade.
• Reputation marker: GI crops showcase unique agro-climatic traits and traditional practices. They act as cultural ambassadors reflecting India’s heritage and agricultural diversity.
• Farmer livelihood: Millions of farmers rely on GI-certified seeds for predictable yields and better market prices. Fake seeds directly jeopardise their income stability.
• Soft power: GI-tagged crops like Basmati, Darjeeling tea, and Alphonso mango enhance India’s global image. They strengthen agri-diplomacy and support India’s trade negotiations.

The Problem: Fake and Substandard Seeds

• Seed failure: Counterfeit or uncertified seeds often fail to germinate or yield, pushing farmers into debt traps. This leads to lower farm productivity and economic distress.
• Reputation risk: Fake seeds threaten the credibility of GI crops internationally. Export rejection or poor-quality produce can damage India’s agricultural brand value.
• Data: In 2024–25, of 2.53 lakh samples tested, 32,525 were substandard, the highest in West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, and MP. This reflects the scale of the counterfeit seed menace.
• Illegal sales: Unauthorised sellers distribute seeds under fake labels, bypassing Agriculture Ministry approvals. Such malpractice weakens regulatory enforcement and trust.
• Regional hotspots: States like Telangana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, and West Bengal have reported large cases of seed fraud. These regions are vulnerable due to vast crop cultivation and market dependence.

Government Response:

• Digital Seed Traceability (SATHI Project):

• • Phase I (2023): Implemented in 23 states/UTs, it covered seed production and processing agencies. It created a digital base for monitoring seed quality at source.
  • Phase II (2025): Extends coverage to dealers and farmers with QR codes for authentication. Farmers can verify seed origin and avoid falling prey to fake packets.

• Amendment to the Seeds Act, 1966:

• • Existing law: Certification of seeds is not mandatory, allowing private players to market “truthfully labelled” seeds. This loophole weakens farmer protection.
  • Proposed changes: Make certification and traceability compulsory with accountability fixed on dealers and companies. It strengthens regulatory oversight and penalises violators.

• Seed Testing Infrastructure:

• • Labs: India operates 178 Seed Testing Labs (STLs) across states. These facilities ensure certified seed quality before reaching farmers.
  • Global standards: 10 labs are NABL-accredited and 2 are ISTA-accredited. Accreditation enhances international credibility and assures compliance with global benchmarks.

Size of India’s Seed Industry:

• Current market: Valued at $6.3 billion (~₹55,200 crore), the seed industry is already one of the largest in Asia. It plays a crucial role in ensuring food security.
• Projected growth: Expected to reach $12.7 billion by 2028 and $20 billion by 2040, with a 10% CAGR. Rising food demand and agri-tech innovations will drive this growth.
• Private sector dominance: 98% in cotton, ~70% in field crops and vegetables, showing corporate dominance in high-value seed segments.
• Public-private synergy: Most marketed varieties originate from ICAR research. This reflects reliance on public R&D while private players handle large-scale dissemination.

Challenges Ahead:

• Enforcement gaps: Raids and FIRs are conducted but counterfeit seed distribution persists. Weak ground-level monitoring creates regulatory loopholes.
• Farmer vulnerability: Small and marginal farmers often lack awareness of certification norms. They are easily duped by low-cost but substandard seed sellers.
• Logistics: Traceability requires robust physical and digital supply chains. Rural connectivity gaps and weak IT adoption hinder nationwide implementation.
• International credibility: Fake seeds in GI crops like Basmati can lead to export rejections. This directly impacts India’s global reputation and foreign exchange earnings.
• Equity gap: Smaller seed companies may struggle with high compliance costs. This risks market monopolisation by bigger firms with stronger infrastructure.

Way Forward:

• Universal Digital Seed Traceability: Scale up SATHI across all states, ensuring farmer training for QR-based verification. This will guarantee authenticity from lab to farm.
• Legislative reform: Fast-track Seeds Act amendments to mandate certification. Stronger penalties will deter counterfeit seed players.
• Awareness drives: Conduct literacy campaigns for farmers on seed traceability and certified dealers. Empower farmers to demand accountability.
• Stronger penalties: Impose criminal liability and licence cancellation for counterfeit manufacturers. This creates deterrence against fraud.
• Public-private collaboration: Encourage joint R&D in blockchain-enabled traceability. Expand accredited seed labs for higher coverage and reliability.
• Global branding: Market GI crops with authenticity certifications in global platforms. This secures India’s exports and strengthens farmer incomes.

Conclusion:

Counterfeit seeds pose a silent but severe threat to India’s farmers, exports, and agri-credibility. GI crops like Basmati embody both economic and cultural value, making their protection vital. With digital traceability, stricter laws, and farmer awareness, India can safeguard seed sovereignty.

 

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Cooling Rights in a Sweltering South

 Syllabus: Climate and Energy

Source:  TH

Context: In June 2025, GoI mandated all new ACs to operate between 20°C–28°C (default 24°C) to save energy and cut emissions.

• The debate has reignited over universal access to cooling as a public health safeguard and a climate adaptation necessity for India and the Global South.

About Cooling Rights in a Sweltering South:

What is Cooling?

• Cooling refers to the reduction of heat load in an environment to provide thermal comfort, protect health, and preserve essential systems.
• It is no longer limited to luxury or comfort; it has become a climate adaptation tool.
• Characteristics of cooling:
  1. Protective: reduces heat-related morbidity and mortality.
  2. Enabling: ensures productivity in labour-intensive sectors (agriculture, construction).
  3. Supportive: critical for healthcare (neonatal care, vaccine storage).
  4. Inequitable: access concentrated in rich urban households; poor & rural left vulnerable.
  5. Energy-intensive: rising demand risks higher emissions unless integrated with renewables.

The imperative of cooling access:

• Climate-linked mortality: WHO estimates ~4.9 lakh deaths globally (2000–2019) due to heat; India alone reported 20,000+ heat-related deaths.

Eg: 2022 Ahmedabad heatwave saw dozens of deaths, prompting city-level Heat Action Plans.

• Labour vulnerability: Nearly 80% of India’s workforce is in agriculture, construction, and informal sectors—highly exposed to outdoor heat stress.

Eg: Rising incidences of heatstroke among construction workers in Delhi and street vendors in Hyderabad.

• Healthcare fragility: In South Asia, 12% of health centres lack electricity; in Sub-Saharan Africa, only 50% of hospitals have reliable power.
  • Neonatal care, emergency surgeries, and vaccine storage depend on stable cooling.
• Equity gap: In India, AC ownership averages just 5% (2021): 13% in urban, 1% in rural; richest 10% own 72% of all ACs.
  • In contrast, 90% households in US & Japan have AC access.
• Energy challenge: GoI’s 2025 proposal—ACs to run at 20–28°C (default 24°C) → estimated saving: 20 billion units, ₹10,000 crore, 16 MT CO₂. But efficiency measures alone don’t address inequity.

Global North vs Global South paradox:

• North: Rapid AC adoption seen as legitimate “adaptation” (e.g., Europe doubling AC ownership since 1990 after heatwaves).
• South: Rising demand framed as a “mitigation burden” threatening global emissions targets.
• This asymmetry reveals climate hypocrisy and highlights the need for development justice.

Policy landscape in India:

• India Cooling Action Plan (ICAP), 2019:
  • Aims to reduce cooling demand by 20–25% by 2037–38.
  • Promotes energy efficiency, building codes, cold-chain expansion, and R&D in green refrigerants.
• Heat Action Plans (HAPs):
  • Initiated in Ahmedabad (2013), now adopted by 23 states.
  • Focus on early warnings, cooling centres, awareness drives.
  • Weakness: poor funding, lack of enforcement, limited reach in rural belts.
• BEE regulations: Default AC setting at 24°C, star-labelling for efficiency.
• International cooperation:
  • Kigali Amendment (2016) under Montreal Protocol → phasedown of HFCs.
  • India committed to cutting HFC use by 85% by 2047.

Key challenges:

• Affordability barrier: ACs remain a luxury good for most households.
• Energy poverty: Per capita electricity consumption in India far below global average (1,327 kWh vs US’s 12,000 kWh).
• Infrastructure deficits: Heat shelters, green public spaces, and passive cooling designs are limited.
• Climate trade-off: Rising AC demand could worsen emissions unless powered by renewables.
• Regulatory gaps: Weak implementation of HAPs and absence of universal cooling rights.

Way forward:

• Universal cooling as a right:

• • Recognise cooling as a public health right, similar to food and water.
  • Build climate-resilient housing with passive cooling (ventilation, reflective rooftops).

• Public infrastructure:

• • Expand heat shelters, shaded walkways, and community cooling centres.
  • Prioritise cooling access in schools, anganwadis, hospitals.

• Labour protection:

• • Heat-index based work-rest cycles, hydration facilities, and mandatory shaded rest areas.
  • Eg: Telangana’s rule mandating mid-day breaks for construction workers during peak summer.

• Technology & innovation:

• • Promote low-cost, energy-efficient ACs with green refrigerants.
  • Expand district cooling systems in urban centres (already piloted in Amaravati, Gujarat International Finance Tec-City).

• Global cooperation:

• • Push for finance & technology transfer under UNFCCC frameworks.
  • Climate finance should include adaptation aid for cooling infrastructure.

Conclusion:

As the global South enters an era of unprecedented heat stress, cooling must shift from a privilege of the few to a developmental right for all. India’s future lies in balancing equitable access with energy efficiency, embedding cooling into health, housing, and labour policies, and demanding climate justice from the North.

 

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UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 26 September 2025 Content for Mains Enrichment (CME)

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MoSPI Comprehensive Modular Survey: Education 2025

Context: School dropout rates in India have halved in just two years, according to the MoSPI Comprehensive Modular Survey: Education 2025.

About MoSPI Comprehensive Modular Survey: Education 2025:

• What it is?
  • Conducted by the Ministry of Statistics & Programme Implementation (MoSPI) during April–June 2025 as part of the 80th round of the National Sample Survey (NSS).
• Trends observed:
  • Dropout decline: Secondary level (8.2% in 2024-25 vs. 13.8% in 2022-23), Middle level (3.5% vs. 8.1%), Preparatory stage (2.3% vs. 8.7%).
  • Structural turnaround: Early interventions like Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan, mid-day meals, scholarships, and NEP 2020 flexibility credited for success.
  • Affordability challenge: Household expenditure rising — Govt. school (Rs 2,639 rural; Rs 4,128 urban) vs. private unaided schools (Rs 19,554 rural; Rs 31,782 urban).
  • Secondary fragility: Adolescents still face pressures of income needs, early work, and limited higher-secondary schools.
  • Long-term outlook: India could move towards universal school completion in a decade if access and affordability are addressed.

Relevance in UPSC Syllabus:

• GS-II (Social Justice): Issues relating to education, schemes like Samagra Shiksha, NEP 2020, school retention and equity.
• GS-I (Society): Social empowerment through literacy and reduced dropouts among vulnerable groups.
• GS-III (Economic Development): Human capital formation and demographic dividend.

 

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UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 26 September 2025 Facts for Prelims (FFP)

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Dolmens of Kodaikanal

Source:  TH

Context: The dolmens of Kodaikanal, megalithic structures dating back over 5,000 years, are fast disappearing, with less than 50% of those recorded in the early 20th century still standing.

About Dolmens of Kodaikanal:

• What it is?

• • Dolmens are megalithic box-like stone structures, usually a large stone slab resting on three vertical pillars, built above the ground.
  • They often served as burial chambers, memorials, or ritual sites, though some local traditions suggest habitation use.

• Origin:

• • Constructed between 1500–2000 BCE (Pre-Iron Age), making them among the oldest structures in the Palani Hills.
  • Linked to early tribes such as the Paliyans and Kurumbas, who are believed to be either descendants or related to the dolmen builders.

• History:

• • First systematically recorded by Jesuit priests Rev. A. Anglade S.J. and Rev. L.V. Newton S.J. in the early 20th century.
  • Their surveys, published in the 1928 Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India, noted ongoing destruction even during road construction.
  • Excavations at Thandikudi and Pethuparai revealed artefacts like black-and-red ware pottery and carnelian beads, proving continuous habitation from pre-Iron Age to early historic periods.

• Features:

• • Simple construction: Stones were not cut or dressed, but sourced from natural quarries.
  • Cap-stone design: Slight slope on top stone allowed rainwater runoff, preventing chamber flooding.
  • Strategic placement: Built on rocky ridges, slopes, or near large rock expanses for natural stability.
  • Communication role: Some circles placed within torch-signal visibility of each other.
  • Altitude factor: Most sites are at 4000–5000 ft above sea level, ideal for forest produce like cardamom and pepper, explaining ancient settlement patterns.

• Significance:

• • Archaeological value: Offer insights into Pre-Iron Age society, burial practices, and early trade routes.
  • Cultural heritage: Locals like the Paliyans still claim ancestral connections, adding intangible heritage value.

 

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MiG-21

Source:  NDTV

Context: The Indian Air Force (IAF) formally retired its last two MiG-21 squadrons — No. 23 Panthers and No. 3 Cobras — marking the end of a six-decade era.

About MiG-21:

What it is?

• A supersonic jet fighter and interceptor with delta-wing design.
• NATO codename: “Fishbed”; nicknames include Balalaika (shape) and Silver Swallow.

Developed by:

• Designed in the 1950s by the Mikoyan-Gurevich Design Bureau (Soviet Union).
• First prototype (Ye-4) flew in 1955 and became the world’s most-produced supersonic jet.

History in India:

• Inducted in 1963 as IAF’s first supersonic jet.
• India procured 700+ MiG-21s across variants, the last being MiG-21 Bison (2006 upgrade).
• Saw action in 1965 War, 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War, and 1999 Kargil conflict.
• Also carried controversies due to high crash record (500+ accidents, 170+ pilot deaths).

Features:

• Single-engine, single-seat interceptor and top speed Mach 2.
• Delta wing for rapid climb but limited turning combat.
• Bison upgrade added modern avionics, radar, and BVR missiles (Derby, ASTRA).
• Emergency thrust mode gave thrust-to-weight ratio near 1:1 for short bursts.

Contribution so far:

• Served as IAF’s backbone for six decades; trained multiple generations of fighter pilots.
• Symbolised Soviet-Indian defence cooperation during Cold War.

 

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Central American Integration System (SICA)

Source:  ET

Context: External Affairs Minister S. Jaishankar addressed the India–SICA Foreign Ministers’ Meeting.

About Central American Integration System (SICA):

What SICA Is?

• Name: Central American Integration System (SICA).
• Purpose: The institutional framework designed to govern and facilitate regional integration in Central America.
• Secretariat: Located in El Salvador.
• Establishment: Created by the Tegucigalpa Protocol (December 13, 1991), which updated the older ODECA Charter.
• Operation Date: Became fully operational on February 1, 1993.
• International Status: Recognized by the UN General Assembly (Resolution A/48 L, 1993).

Membership:

• Founding States (6): Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama.
• Later Members (2): Belize, Dominican Republic.
• Extra-Regional Observers: Includes the EU, UK, Spain, Germany, Japan, South Korea, and India (a designated partner).

Aims:

• Stability: Achieve and consolidate peace, liberty, democracy, and overall development.
• Governance: Promote human rights and the rule of law.
• Economy: Progress from a Free Trade Area toward a fully realized Customs Union.
• Cohesion: Develop regional infrastructure, a unified visa/passport system, and common global positions.

Functions:

• Leadership: Hosts Biannual Summits with the presidency rotating every six months.
• Coordination: Aligns policies on trade, the customs union, climate action, food security, and energy cooperation.
• Diplomacy: Facilitates collective diplomacy to align members on global forums.

Importance for India:

• Partnership: Serves as a strategic platform for South–South cooperation on shared challenges (poverty, development, climate change).
• Economy: Offers economic opportunities for Indian expertise in agriculture, renewable energy, pharma, IT, and digital payments (e.g., the UPI model).

 

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HSBC–IBM Quantum-Enabled Algorithmic Trading

Source:  HSBC

Context: HSBC and IBM announced the world’s first quantum-enabled algorithmic bond trading trial.

About HSBC–IBM Quantum-Enabled Algorithmic Trading:

What It Is?

• The trial is the world’s first-known empirical evidence of using a hybrid quantum-classical computing approach to solve a real-world problem in algorithmic bond trading.
• It involved HSBC and IBM, using real, production-scale trading data from the European corporate bond market.

Features:

• Hybrid Approach: The teams utilized a combination of quantum and classical computing resources, rather than quantum computers alone.
• Quantum Augmentation: The IBM Heron quantum processor was used to augment classical computing workflows.

About Algorithmic Trading (Algo Trading):

What It Is?

• Algorithmic trading is the use of computer programs to automatically execute buy or sell orders for securities (like stocks, bonds, futures, or options) based on a predefined set of rules. These rules or criteria are coded based on factors like price, time, volume, or technical indicators.

How It Works:

• Strategy Definition: A trading strategy is designed using technical indicators, historical data, and quantitative models.

E.g., “Buy 100 shares if the 5-minute moving average crosses above the 20-minute moving average”.

• Coding: The strategy logic is converted into an automated computer code (often in Python, Java, or C++).
• Data Feed: The algorithm connects to a live data feed to continuously monitor market prices and conditions.
• Execution: When the predefined criteria are met, the algorithm automatically triggers and sends the order to the broker/exchange in milliseconds, with zero human intervention.

Key Features and Benefits:

• Speed: Executes trades in milliseconds, capturing fleeting price differences.
• Reduced Emotion: Removes human emotional biases (fear, greed) from trading decisions, ensuring consistency.
• Consistency: Adheres strictly to the pre-programmed rules every time.
• Scalability: Allows a trader to run and monitor multiple strategies and asset classes simultaneously.
• Backtesting: Enables strategies to be tested on historical data before live deployment.

Algorithmic vs. Manual Trading:

SEBI Rules on Algo Trading (India):

• Recognised since 2008 and NSE introduced co-location & smart order routing (2011).
• SEBI now mandates:
  • All algo strategies must be approved by exchanges and assigned unique IDs.
  • Brokers responsible for risk controls, audit trails, and client consent.
  • Discourages unauthorised third-party black-box algos.

 

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The World Para Athletics Championships 2025

Source:  FP

Context: India is hosting its first-ever World Para Athletics Championships 2025 in New Delhi, inaugurated at Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium.

About The World Para Athletics Championships 2025:

What it is?

• The flagship global competition for para-athletes, organised biennially by World Para Athletics (under IPC).
• Serves as the highest platform (after Paralympics) for track & field events for differently-abled athletes.

Host for 2025:

• New Delhi, India – first time India is hosting the Championships.
• Venue: Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium, with newly built world-class Mondo track.

Mascot:

• “Viraaj” – a young elephant with a blade prosthesis.
• Symbolises strength, optimism, inclusivity, courage, and resilience of para-athletes.

History:

• Para athletics first appeared at the Stoke Mandeville Games (1952), later included in the Rome 1960 Paralympics.
• World Para Athletics Championships began in 1994 (Berlin, Germany).

Features of 2025 Championship:

• Inclusivity: Participation by high-support needs athletes and mixed-gender relay events.
• Logo & Symbols: Represent India’s heritage, inclusivity, courage, and sporting excellence.
• Message: Highlights India’s rising global sporting ambitions and commitment to diversity, equality, and accessibility.

 

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2G Ethanol

Source:  DTE

Context: India allowed the export of 2G ethanol, with mandatory export licenses and feedstock certificates.

About 2G Ethanol:

What it is?

• 2G (Second-Generation) ethanol is an advanced biofuel made from non-food, lignocellulosic biomass such as agricultural residues, forestry waste, woody biomass, algae, and municipal solid waste.
• Unlike 1G ethanol (from edible crops like sugarcane, maize), 2G uses waste materials, ensuring food security and sustainable fuel use.

How it is formed?

• Feedstock: Crop residues (rice/wheat straw, bagasse, corn stover), grasses, algae, wood chips.
• Pretreatment: Mechanical/thermal/chemical processes break rigid plant cell walls.
• Hydrolysis: Enzymes (cellulases) release fermentable sugars from cellulose & hemicellulose.
• Fermentation: Microorganisms (wild or genetically engineered yeasts) convert sugars into ethanol.
• Distillation & purification: Produces bioethanol fit for blending or industrial use.

Features of 2G Ethanol:

• Sustainable: Uses agricultural & forestry residues, reducing stubble burning and food-waste.
• Low-carbon fuel: Cuts GHG emissions by 85–108% compared to gasoline.
• Non-food based: Prevents diversion of food crops, easing food vs fuel debate.
• Scalable potential: Can use 62 MMT of municipal waste in India annually.
• Policy-driven: Supported by India’s E20 blending target (2030 achieved early in 2025).

Applications:

• Transport sector: Blending with petrol (reduces crude import dependence).
• Aviation biofuel: Potential for green aviation fuel (long-term).
• Industrial solvents: Used in pharma, chemicals, and beverage sectors.
• Environmental management: Helps curb stubble burning & waste accumulation.

 

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UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 26 September 2025 Mapping:

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IUCN Recognises Dugong Conservation Reserve in Palk Bay

Source:   DH

Context: The IUCN World Conservation Congress 2025 (Abu Dhabi) adopted a resolution recognising India’s first Dugong Conservation Reserve in Palk Bay, Tamil Nadu as a global model for marine biodiversity conservation.

About IUCN Recognises Dugong Conservation Reserve in Palk Bay:

• What it is?

• • India’s first Dugong Conservation Reserve, notified in September 2022 under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.
  • Recognised by IUCN in 2025 as a pioneering step for marine biodiversity and community-led conservation.

• Located in:

• • Covers 448.34 sq km across Thanjavur and Pudukkottai districts, Tamil Nadu.
  • Situated in the northern Palk Bay, harbouring 12,250 hectares of seagrass meadows.

• Features:

• • Protects Dugong dugon (sea cows), listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List.
  • Seagrass beds here also support commercial fish, crabs, shrimps, benefitting marginal fishermen.

About Dugong:

• What it is?

• • A large marine herbivorous mammal, commonly called “sea cow”.
  • Only strictly herbivorous marine mammal in existence.

• Scientific name: Dugong dugon
• Region found in:

• • Distributed across tropical and subtropical seagrass meadows of the Indian Ocean and western Pacific.
  • In India → major populations in Palk Bay, Gulf of Mannar, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, and Gulf of Kutch.

• Features:

• • Physical:
    • Size: 3–3.5 m long, weight > 300 kg.
    • Paddle-like flippers, dolphin-like tail.
    • Grey-brown skin, rounded snout for grazing seagrass.
  • Biological:
    • Diet: Consumes 30–40 kg of seagrass daily (species like Halodule, Halophila, Cymodocea).
    • Lifespan: Up to 70 years, but very low reproductive rate (long calving intervals).

 

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