UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 2 August 2025

 

UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 2 August 2025 covers important current affairs of the day, their backward linkages, their relevance for Prelims exam and MCQs on main articles

 

InstaLinks :  Insta Links help you think beyond the  current affairs issue and help you think multidimensionally to develop depth in your understanding of these issues. These linkages provided in this ‘hint’ format help you frame possible questions in your mind that might arise(or an examiner might imagine) from each current event. InstaLinks also connect every issue to their static or theoretical background.

Table of Contents 

GS Paper 2 : (UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 2 August (2025)

1. India–U.S. tariffs 2025

GS Paper 3:

2. ICJ Ruling Revives Legal Status of Kyoto Protocol

3. Why the World Needs Better Green Technologies in 2025?

 Content for Mains Enrichment (CME):

1. OECD Report on Plastic Pollution

Facts for Prelims (FFP):

1. Apna Ghar Initiative

2. Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee (SGPC)

3. PM National Dialysis Programme

4. NPCI has rolled out revised UPI operational rules

5. Mouse Deer

 Mapping:

1. Slovenia

UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 2 August 2025

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GS Paper 2:

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India–U.S. tariffs 2025

Syllabus: Bilateral Realtions

Source:  TH

Context: U.S. President Donald Trump imposed a 25% tariff and penalty on Indian imports, citing India’s defence and energy ties with Russia, prompting India’s MEA to reaffirm the resilience of India-U.S. strategic partnership.

About India–U.S. tariffs 2025:

Current Nature of India–U.S. Ties

• Described as a comprehensive global strategic partnership, built on shared democratic values, trade, defence, and people-to-people ties.
• Yet, rising strategic divergences—on Russia, BRICS, market access, and regional alliances—are resurfacing.

Key Structural Faultlines in India–U.S. Relations:

• Divergence on Russia and Strategic Autonomy:

• • India continues defence and energy engagement with Russia.
  • U.S. penalised India under new tariffs and indirectly through CAATSA-style pressure.
  • India’s ‘strategic autonomy’ clashes with U.S.’s demand for alignment in great power rivalries.

E.g., India continues importing S-400s and Russian crude despite Western sanctions.

• S. Tariffs and Market Access Dispute:

• • Trump’s new 25% import duty targets sectors like textiles, telecom, autos, gems.
  • U.S. argues India’s high average tariff (17%) and NTBs hinder fair access.
  • However, U.S. imposes steeper tariffs on agriculture, dairy, and metals.

E.g., Indian garments, leather, gems now face 30–38% import duties in the U.S.

• BRICS Membership & Global South Alignment:

• • Trump equated BRICS with “anti-U.S.” sentiment, naming India’s presence problematic.
  • India, however, sees BRICS as complementary to its Global South leadership and QUAD ties.

E.g., India participates in BRICS and I2U2, demonstrating multipolar alignment.

• S.–Pakistan Rapprochement vs. Indian Interests:

• • Renewed U.S. engagement with Pakistan as a counter-terror partner contradicts India’s diplomatic efforts to isolate it globally.

E.g., U.S.–Pakistan oil deal announcement triggered strategic unease in Delhi.

• Competing Nationalisms: ‘America First’ ‘India First’:

• • India’s assertive diplomacy (‘Sabka Saath, Sabka Vikas‘ globally) collides with U.S. fears of nuclear assertiveness and a non-aligned India.
  • There’s a perception shift in Washington — from strategic altruism to scepticism of India’s ambitions.

E.g., Think-tanks like Carnegie and Tellis have criticized India’s “great-power delusion.”

Economic Impact of U.S. Tariffs on India:

• Reduced Export Competitiveness: Tariff hikes on textiles, telecom, gems, and agri-exports make Indian goods costlier, reducing their edge over Vietnam and Bangladesh.
• Strain on Labour-Intensive Industries: MSMEs in garments, footwear, and handicrafts may see falling demand and margins, risking employment and income loss.
• Disruption in Global Value Chains: Higher duties hinder India’s role in U.S.-led supply chains, discouraging global firms from sourcing from India.
• Shrinking Bilateral Trade Surplus: India’s trade surplus with the U.S. could narrow, weakening forex inflows and bargaining power in future negotiations.
• Dip in FDI and Investor Confidence: Uncertain trade outlook could deter investment in export-heavy sectors and undercut “Make in India” goals.

Strategic Implications Beyond Trade:

• From Strategic Altruism to Transactionalism: Tariffs reflect a shift in U.S. policy—prioritising interests over values—weakening the strategic depth of ties.
• Pressure on India’s Multipolar Strategy: India’s ties with BRICS, Russia, and Iran face growing U.S. scrutiny, complicating its balancing diplomacy.
• Revival of Trust Deficit: Trump’s criticism of India’s alliances may revive old Cold War divisions, challenging India’s autonomous posture.
• Strains on People-to-People and Tech Links: Mistrust could spill into education, visas, and technology—undermining long-term convergence.
• Energy Sovereignty under Pressure: Linking tariffs to defence and oil imports from Russia signals U.S. attempts to influence India’s strategic autonomy.

Conclusion:

India–U.S. relations, though resilient, are now being tested by deep-seated structural mismatches—on global alliances, economic expectations, and nationalist assertions. Balancing India’s multipolar vision with a pragmatic bilateral approach remains the key to salvaging this defining partnership of the 21st century.

 

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UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 2 August 2025 GS Paper 3:

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ICJ Ruling Revives Legal Status of Kyoto Protocol

Syllabus: Environment

Source:  IE

Context: In a landmark advisory opinion, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) has clarified that the Kyoto Protocol (1997) remains legally valid and binding, even after the Paris Agreement (2015) came into effect.

About ICJ Ruling Revives Legal Status of Kyoto Protocol:

What is the Kyoto Protocol?

• Adopted in 1997, entered into force in 2005 under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
• It was the first binding international treaty mandating emission reductions by developed nations (Annex-I countries).
• Based on the principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR–RC).
• Had two commitment periods: 2008–2012 and 2012–2020.

Key Obligations:

• Emission reductions by Annex-I countries (from 1990 baseline).
• Finance and technology transfer to developing nations.
• Creation of mechanisms like Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).

Why Was the Kyoto Protocol Considered Obsolete?

• The Paris Agreement (2015), with a universal and bottom-up structure, replaced Kyoto’s top-down, binding targets with voluntary NDCs (Nationally Determined Contributions).
• The US never ratified the Kyoto Protocol; Canada, Japan and others exited or stopped complying.
• No third commitment period was adopted post-2020.
• Post-Paris, the protocol was considered defunct in operational and legal terms, though never formally repealed.

Significance of the ICJ Ruling:

• Legal Continuity Reaffirmed: The ICJ ruled that lack of new commitment periods does not mean termination. Kyoto remains part of international climate law.
• States Can Be Held Legally Accountable: Non-compliance with Kyoto targets may now constitute an “internationally wrongful act”, reviving the possibility of state responsibility under international law.
• Retroactive Assessment Permitted: Even past obligations (e.g., first commitment period targets) are open for review and compliance assessment.
• Scope for Climate Litigation Expanded: Though the opinion is non-binding, it empowers civil society and states to pursue stronger climate litigation and demand accountability.

Implications for Global Climate Governance:

• The ruling underscores treaty coexistence, not substitution.
• It revives CBDR–RC principle, often diluted under Paris structure.
• Developed nations may face renewed legal scrutiny for historical emissions.

Challenges in Implementation

• US non-ratification: The US never ratified Kyoto, weakening global adherence and setting a precedent for other developed nations.
• No enforcement mechanism: Kyoto lacked penalties for non-compliance, making targets non-binding in practice.
• Paris vs Kyoto conflict: Paris allows voluntary pledges, undermining Kyoto’s binding legal obligations and accountability.
• Geopolitical rivalry: Tensions like US–China mistrust hinder consensus on global climate obligations and reforms.

Way Forward:

• Reactivate Kyoto monitoring: Track and assess past commitments to reinforce legal climate accountability.
• Strengthen Paris transparency: Apply Kyoto-style reporting rigor to improve trust and target comparability.
• Expand climate jurisprudence: Use ICJ rulings and tribunals to build legal clarity on state climate obligations.
• Revive North–South equity: Ensure finance, tech transfers, and burden-sharing aligned with CBDR principles.
• Merge legal and voluntary models: Create a hybrid system combining Kyoto’s obligations with Paris flexibility for effective governance.

Conclusion:

The ICJ’s ruling has resurrected the Kyoto Protocol’s legal relevance, transforming it from a forgotten relic to an active instrument of climate accountability. It signals that historical emissions, past obligations, and the principle of equity cannot be brushed aside in the climate fight. While not binding, this ruling adds moral and legal pressure on developed nations to deliver on their long-pending climate promises.

 

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Why the World Needs Better Green Technologies in 2025?

Syllabus: Climate and Energy

Source:  TH

Context: Amid climate pressures, geopolitical tensions, and India’s push for energy self-reliance, experts urge a shift from conventional solar tech to next-gen, efficient alternatives.

About Why the World Needs Better Green Technologies in 2025:

What Are Green Technologies?

Green technologies refer to scientific innovations and engineering systems designed to reduce environmental harm, minimize carbon emissions, and promote sustainable energy generation and resource use.

Why the World Needs Better Green Technologies:

• Low Efficiency of Conventional Solar Panels:

• • Silicon photovoltaics dominate global markets but deliver only 15–18% field efficiency.
  • More efficient alternatives (e.g., gallium arsenide-based panels at ~47%) exist but lack large-scale deployment.

E.g. Doubling efficiency would halve the land requirement — a crucial factor as urbanization and conservation pressures rise.

• Land Scarcity and Energy Density Trade-offs

• • Solar plants require vast land areas due to low energy density.
  • Competing needs: urban sprawl, agriculture, biodiversity conservation vs. solar expansion.

E.g. In countries like India, with high population density and rising per capita energy needs, efficient land use becomes critical.

• Questionable Sustainability of Green Hydrogen:

• • Green hydrogen production via electrolysis consumes more energy than it returns.
  • Hydrogen is difficult to store and transport due to leakage and low density.

E.g. Converting green hydrogen to ammonia/methanol for transport adds another energy-intensive step, making the process less “green.”

• Carbon Dioxide Still Rising Despite Renewable Growth:

• • Global CO₂ levels increased from 350 ppm (1990) to 425 ppm (2025) despite exponential solar installations.
  • Suggests renewable growth isn’t outpacing demand or emissions.

E.g. India’s 6 GW silicon solar cell capacity isn’t sufficient to make a dent without efficiency upgrades or technology diversification.

• Need for Disruptive Innovation: Artificial Photosynthesis & RFNBO:

• • Artificial Photosynthesis (APS) mimics plants to convert water + CO₂ → fuel.
  • Renewable Fuels of Non-Biological Origin (RFNBO): EU push to create carbon-neutral fuels directly from sunlight and air.

E.g. Such technologies could bypass multi-step conversion processes, cut emissions at source, and enable energy independence.

Challenges to Realising Better Green Technologies:

1. High R&D Costs and Long Gestation Periods: Developing advanced green technologies like gallium arsenide cells or APS demands large upfront investments.
2. Overdependence on China for Solar Supply Chains: India relies on China for over 80% of its solar panel components, creating geopolitical and trade risks.
3. Lack of Large-Scale Validation of Emerging Tech: Technologies like Artificial Photosynthesis or multi-junction photovoltaics remain lab-proven.
4. Private Sector Hesitation Due to Market Uncertainty: Investors are reluctant to fund futuristic innovations without guaranteed returns or proven viability.

Way Forward:

1. Prioritise R&D Funding: Allocate a larger share of climate budget to disruptive innovations like APS and RFNBOs.
2. Public-Private Partnerships (PPP): Encourage Indian startups and industries to collaborate with national labs.
3. Technology Diversification: Avoid over-reliance on one tech. Build an ecosystem of solar, wind, hydrogen, waste-to-energy, and nuclear innovation.
4. Land-Efficient Designs: Promote floating solar, solar rooftops, and building-integrated PVs to address land issues.
5. Global Collaboration: Engage in tech transfer, joint ventures, and climate innovation missions (e.g., Mission Innovation, India-EU Green Deal).

Conclusion:

In a world battling geopolitical shocks, ecological fragility, and rising energy demands, today’s green technologies — while crucial — are not enough. Energy innovation must outpace energy demand, and “green” must not just be a label but a measurable standard of efficiency, sustainability, and independence. India must lead with technology foresight, not just technology deployment.

 

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UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 2 August 2025 Content for Mains Enrichment (CME)

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OECD Report on Plastic Pollution

Context: The OECD has released a warning that plastic use and waste in Southeast and East Asia may nearly double by 2050 without urgent, stringent policies.

About OECD Report on Plastic Pollution:

What It Is?

A comprehensive environmental forecast by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) assessing the trajectory of plastic production, waste, leakage, and policy options in the ASEAN Plus Three (APT) region.

Key Trends and Findings:

• Plastic Use Surge: Projected to rise from 152 million tonnes (2022) to 280 million tonnes by 2050 in APT countries.
• Waste Generation: Plastic waste will increase from 113 million tonnes to 242 million tonnes by 2050.
• Packaging Waste: To grow from 49 million tonnes to 91 million tonnes.
• Mismanaged Waste: Despite percentage reduction (29% in 2022 → 23% in 2050), absolute volume rises from 33 to 56 million tonnes.
• Plastic Leakage: 8.4 million tonnes leaked into the environment in 2022; expected to hit 14.1 million tonnes by 2050, threatening oceans, rivers, and human health.
• Climate Implications: Lifecycle emissions from plastics to nearly double from 0.6 to 1 GtCO₂e by 2050.

 

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UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 2 August 2025 Facts for Prelims (FFP):

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Apna Ghar Initiative

Source:  DD News

Context: The Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas has launched ‘Apna Ghar’, a national initiative providing resting facilities for truck drivers along highways.

About Apna Ghar Initiative:

• What It Is?

• • A resting infrastructure scheme for truck drivers, launched to address fatigue, hygiene, and well-being during long-haul journeys.
  • Operated at fuel retail outlets along national and state highways by Public Sector Oil Marketing Companies (OMCs).

• Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas
• Launched in: 2025
• Aim:

• • To enhance road safety, reduce driver fatigue, and improve living conditions for truckers, who are crucial to India’s logistics sector.
  • Supports inclusive infrastructure development and social welfare in the transport ecosystem.

• Key Features:

• • Widespread Coverage: 368 rest houses with 4,611 beds operational across major highways.
  • Facilities Offered:
    • Dormitories (10–30 beds each)
    • Clean toilets and bathing areas (Houdas)
    • Self-cooking and dining zones
    • Restaurants/Dhabas
    • Purified drinking water access
  • Tech Integration: ‘Apna Ghar’ mobile app launched for booking, feedback, and driver engagement.
  • Public-Private Implementation: Built and managed by OMCs at retail fuel stations.
  • User-Centric Design: Customised to truckers’ needs, informed by feedback and mobile app data analytics.

• Significance:
• Promotes driver health, hygiene, and road safety.
• A step towards dignified working conditions for the informal transport sector.
• Aligns with supply chain resilience, labour rights, and SDG 8 (Decent Work).

 

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Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee (SGPC)

Source:  NIE

Context: The Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee (SGPC) has urged the Central Government to regulate AI platforms disseminating misinformation about Sikh teachings, history, and Gurbani.

About Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee (SGPC):

What it is?

SGPC is the apex elected body of Sikhs that manages historical gurdwaras and religious affairs in India and abroad, acting under the spiritual guidance of Sri Akal Takht Sahib.

Year of Establishment:

• Founded in 1920 as part of the Gurdwara Reform Movement, and legally recognised under the Sikh Gurdwaras Act, 1925 after British-era religious mismanagement.

Historical Context:

• Emerged during the Sikh struggle against Udasi mahants and British control of Sikh shrines.
• Played a pivotal role in movements like Nankana Sahib Massacre (1921), Guru Ka Bagh Morcha, and Jaito Morcha.
• Became a symbol of religious autonomy and community self-governance for Sikhs.

Key Functions:

• Administers over 200 gurdwaras under Sections 85 & 87 of the Sikh Gurdwaras Act.
• Conducts elections for 191-member house, ensuring representation from across India.
• Manages educational institutions, medical centres, publications, and religious awareness campaigns.
• Acts on sacrilege, misinformation, and challenges to Sikh spiritual and cultural heritage.

About Gurbani:

• What is Gurbani?
  • Gurbani refers to the sacred hymns and verses composed by the Gurus of Sikhism, primarily found in the Guru Granth Sahib, the central scripture of the Sikh faith. It is considered the divine word revealed by the Gurus, and is the spiritual and moral guide for Sikhs.
• Key Features of Gurbani:

• • Divinely Inspired Revelation: Sikhs believe Gurbani is the eternal voice of the divine, revealed through the Gurus, not man-made literature.
  • Compiled in Guru Granth Sahib: All authenticated Gurbani is preserved in the Guru Granth Sahib, which contains hymns by six Sikh Gurus and 15+ saints (Bhagats) from diverse social and religious backgrounds.
  • Written in Gurmukhi Script: The language is primarily Sant Bhasha and Punjabi dialects, written in Gurmukhi, and uses poetic meters called Raags (musical modes).
  • Musical and Poetic Structure: Most Gurbani verses are composed in 31 Raags, and are intended to be sung. This enhances devotional engagement and memory.
  • Universal Ethical Message: Gurbani emphasizes truth, humility, service (seva), compassion, and remembrance of God (Naam Simran) — transcending caste, religion, and gender.
  • Authority in Sikhism: It is considered the living Guru after Guru Gobind Singh Ji’s declaration, and no one is allowed to alter or reinterpret Gurbani arbitrarily.
  • Daily Recitation and Practice: Sikhs recite Gurbani (Nitnem) daily, including verses like Japji Sahib, Rehras Sahib, and Kirtan Sohila, as part of spiritual discipline.

 

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PM National Dialysis Programme

Source:  PIB

Context: The Government of India has extended the Pradhan Mantri National Dialysis Programme (PMNDP) to 751 districts across all 36 States and Union Territories, with over 1,700 functional dialysis centres as of June 30, 2025.

About PM National Dialysis Programme (PMNDP):

• What It Is?
  • A flagship scheme under National Health Mission (NHM) launched to provide free dialysis services to economically vulnerable patients suffering from end-stage renal disease (ESRD).
• Launched In:

• • Initiated in April 2016 under Union Budget 2016–17
  • Implemented via Public-Private Partnership (PPP) and hybrid models

• Ministry: Implemented by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
• Objectives:

• • Provide equitable, affordable dialysis care across India
  • Reduce financial burden on Below Poverty Line (BPL) families
  • Strengthen renal-care infrastructure in district hospitals and beyond

• Coverage and Reach:

• • Functional in 751 districts across 36 States/UTs
  • 1,704 dialysis centres operational as of June 2025
  • Services extended to Community Health Centres in tribal and remote areas

• Key Features:

• • Types of Dialysis Offered:
    • Haemodialysis (HD) and Peritoneal Dialysis (PD) services covered
  • Implementation Models:
    • PPP mode in 14 States/UTs
    • In-house model in 16 States/UTs
    • Hybrid model in 6 States/UTs
  • PMNDP IT Portal:
    • Launched in May 2022 for real-time integration of dialysis centres
    • Enables One Nation–One Dialysis portability with real-time slot availability
  • ABHA Number Integration:
    • 14-digit Ayushman Bharat Health Account (ABHA) ensures seamless patient data linkage and identification
    • Facilitates Personal Health Record (PHR) access and insurance scheme integration
  • Health Facility Registry (HFR):
    • National repository of public and private health institutions
    • Enables transparent, searchable database to improve healthcare access
  • Target Group:
    • Primarily caters to BPL patients, but infrastructure benefits all ESRD patients

 

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NPCI has rolled out revised UPI operational rules

Source:  NDTV

Context: The National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) has rolled out revised UPI operational rules from August 1, 2025, aimed at reducing transaction lags and system overloads during peak hours.

About NPCI has rolled out revised UPI operational rules:

• What it is?
  • Unified Payments Interface (UPI) is India’s flagship digital payment platform facilitating seamless peer-to-peer and peer-to-merchant transfers.
• Effective From: The new regulations take effect from August 1, 2025, across all UPI apps including PhonePe, Google Pay, and Paytm.
• Aim: To ensure faster processing, prevent fraud, and balance system load by optimizing user behaviour during peak hours.
• Key New UPI Rules:

• • Balance Check Limit: Users can check balance up to 50 times per day per app; advised to avoid during peak hours.
  • Auto-Pay Restriction: Auto-debit mandates will now be executed only during non-peak hours: before 10 AM, 1–5 PM, or after 9:30 PM.
  • Transaction Status Check: Limited to 3 status checks per transaction with a minimum 90-second gap between each attempt.
  • Linked Account Enquiries: Capped at 25 account-checks per day per app to curb unnecessary server load.
  • Beneficiary Name Preview: The registered bank name of recipient will appear before final confirmation to reduce errors and fraud.

 

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Mouse Deer

Source:  TOI

Context: The elusive Silver-backed Chevrotain (mouse deer), thought extinct for over 30 years, has been rediscovered in the forests of southern Vietnam, sparking global conservation optimism.

About Mouse Deer:

• What is the Mouse Deer?
  • The mouse deer, also called chevrotain, is the world’s smallest hoofed mammal, belonging to the family Tragulidae. Though it resembles both a mouse and a deer, it is unrelated to either and represents a primitive ruminant lineage.
• Scientific Name & Taxonomy:

• • Scientific Names:
    • Tragulus kanchil (Lesser Mouse Deer)
    • Tragulus napu (Greater Mouse Deer)
    • Tragulus versicolor (Silver-backed Chevrotain – rediscovered species)

• Habitat and Distribution:

• • Found in tropical and subtropical forests of South and Southeast Asia (India, Vietnam, Thailand, Sri Lanka).
  • African cousin (Hyemoschus aquaticus) resides in West and Central African rainforests.
  • Often inhabit dense undergrowth, lowland forests, and remain nocturnal and elusive.

• Biological and Behavioural Traits:

• • Lack modern thermoregulation mechanisms found in advanced artiodactyls.
  • Known for their ability to submerge underwater for minutes to evade predators.

• Feeding Habits:

• • Primarily herbivorous: feed on fruits, leaves, and soft plant parts.
  • The African chevrotain occasionally consumes insects, crabs, and scavenged meat—an unusual trait for ruminants.

• Social and Reproductive Behaviour:
  • Prefer solitary or paired existence; territorial with small home ranges (13–24 hectares).
  • Males use chin and preputial glands for marking.

• Reproduction:
  • One offspring per birth.
  • Weaning at 3 months and maturity between 5–10 months.

• Unique Adaptations:

• • Drumming with hooves: Emits rhythmic beats to signal distress or warn off threats.
  • Underwater hiding: Known to stay submerged for over 5 minutes—key survival trait.

 

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UPSC CURRENT AFFAIRS – 2 August 2025 Mapping:

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Slovenia

Source:  TW

Context: Slovenia has become the first Europe Union (EU) country to impose a total arms embargo on Israel over the Gaza conflict.

About Slovenia:

• Located in:

• • A Central European democratic republic, formerly part of Yugoslavia.
  • Known for its Alpine terrain, karst topography, and coastal access.
  • Joined the EU and NATO in 2004, adopting the Euro as its currency.
• Capital: Ljubljana

• Neighbours: Austria, Hungary, Croatia, Italy, and Adriatic Sea (Gulf of Venice)
• Key Physical Features:
  • Alpine Highlands (≈40% of land)

• • • Ranges: Julian Alps, Karavanke, Kamnik-Savinja Alps
    • Highest Peak: Mount Triglav (2,864 m)
    • Notable Lakes: Lake Bled, Lake Bohinj

• Karst Plateau:

• • • Globally known for its karstic landforms: sinkholes, caves, underground rivers
    • Water-scarce, thin soils and low population density

• Subpannonian Plains:

• • • Rich alluvial soils supporting agriculture
    • Rivers: Sava, Drava, Mura
      • Most rivers flow toward the Danube basin

• Slovene Littoral:

• • • 47-km coastline on Gulf of Venice
    • Major port: Koper
    • Known for Mediterranean influence and river valleys.

 

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