75 Days Mains Revision Plan 2024 – Art & Culture & Ethics (GS – I)
Art & Culture:
Q1. Discuss the core teachings of Buddhism. What factors contributed to its expansion across Asia?
Introduction
Buddhism, which originated in India in the 6th century BCE with the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha), eventually spread far beyond its homeland, influencing cultures and societies across Asia. Its spread was facilitated by a combination of doctrinal appeal, political support, trade routes, and cultural exchanges.
Body:
Core teachings of Buddhism:
- The Four Noble Truths:
- a) Dukkha (Suffering): Life inherently involves suffering or unsatisfactoriness.
- b) Samudaya (Cause): Suffering arises from craving and attachment.
- c) Nirodha (Cessation): It’s possible to end suffering.
- d) Magga (Path): The Eightfold Path leads to the cessation of suffering.
- The Eightfold Path:
- The Middle Way: Avoiding extremes of self-indulgence and self-denial.
- The Three Marks of Existence
- Impermanence (Anicca): All conditioned phenomena are transient and constantly changing.
- Suffering (Dukkha): All experiences are ultimately unsatisfactory and lead to suffering.
- Non-self (Anatta): There is no permanent, unchanging self or soul; all phenomena are interdependent and lack inherent existence.
- Nirvana: The ultimate goal of liberation from suffering and the cycle of rebirth.
Factors that contributed to the expansion of Buddhism beyond India:
- Doctrinal Appeal:
- Universal Message: Buddhism’s teachings of compassion, non-violence, and the path to enlightenment through the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path resonated with diverse populations. Its universal message transcended ethnic and cultural boundaries.
- Adaptability: Buddhism showed a remarkable ability to adapt to different cultures and incorporate local beliefs and practices, which helped it gain acceptance in various regions.
- Political Support:
- Patronage by Rulers: Emperor Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism in the 3rd century BCE was a significant turning point. His support led to the spread of Buddhism within and beyond India through missions and the establishment of stupas and monasteries.
- State Sponsorship: Various rulers in other countries, such as King Anawrahta of Burma, King Songtsen Gampo of Tibet, and Emperor Wu of Liang in China, also adopted and promoted Buddhism, furthering its spread.
- Trade and Cultural Exchanges:
- Silk Road: The network of trade routes known as the Silk Road facilitated the movement of Buddhist monks, texts, and art from India to Central Asia, China, and beyond. Merchants and travellers played a crucial role in introducing Buddhist ideas to new regions.
- Maritime Routes: Buddhism also spread via sea routes, reaching Southeast Asia through the maritime trade networks that connected the Indian subcontinent with Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Indonesia, and other regions.
- Monastic Missions:
- Monastic Missions and Pilgrims: Buddhist monks embarked on missions to propagate the Dharma. Notable figures such as Mahinda, who introduced Buddhism to Sri Lanka, and Xuanzang, who travelled from China to India, were instrumental in spreading Buddhist teachings and establishing connections between distant Buddhist communities.
- Translation of Texts: The translation of Buddhist scriptures into local languages, particularly Chinese, played a vital role in the dissemination of Buddhist philosophy and practice. The efforts of translators like Kumarajiva and Bodhidharma were crucial in making Buddhist texts accessible to non-Indian populations.
- Cultural Integration:
- Syncretism: In many regions, Buddhism integrated with local religious traditions, which facilitated its acceptance and growth.
- For example, in China, Buddhism merged with Daoism and Confucianism, while in Japan, it blended with Shinto practices.
- Art and Architecture: The creation of Buddhist art and architecture, such as the cave temples at Dunhuang in China and Borobudur in Indonesia, not only served religious purposes but also attracted lay followers and patrons, thereby aiding in the spread of Buddhism.
- Syncretism: In many regions, Buddhism integrated with local religious traditions, which facilitated its acceptance and growth.
Conclusion
These factors collectively contributed to the establishment of Buddhism as a major religious and cultural force across Asia, leaving a lasting impact on the region’s spiritual and cultural landscape. Today, Buddhism continues to thrive in various forms, illustrating its enduring appeal and adaptability.
Q2. Examine the evolution of rock-cut cave architecture from the Mauryan period to the Gupta period.
Introduction
Rock-cut cave architecture in India evolved significantly from the Mauryan period (3rd century BCE) to the Gupta period (4th-6th century CE). This evolution reflects changes in religious practices, artistic styles, and technological advancements.
Body:
Evolution of rock-cut cave architecture from the Mauryan period to the Gupta period:
Mauryan Period (3rd century BCE):
- Beginnings of Rock-Cut Architecture: The earliest examples of rock-cut architecture date back to the Mauryan period, with significant contributions from Emperor Ashoka.
- Barabar Caves: Located in Bihar, these caves are among the oldest surviving examples. They were initially used by the Ajivika sect.
- The Lomas Rishi Cave in the Barabar Hills is notable for its polished interior walls and elaborate entrance facade, mimicking wooden architecture.
- Architectural Features:
- Simple and austere interiors with highly polished surfaces.
- Emphasis on functional spaces rather than decorative elements.
Post-Mauryan Period (2nd century BCE – 1st century CE):
- Early Buddhist Caves: The period saw the expansion of Buddhist rock-cut architecture, particularly in the Western Ghats, with significant sites like Bhaja, Karla, and Kanheri.
- Chaitya Halls and Viharas: The introduction of chaitya halls (prayer halls) with apsidal ends and viharas (monastic living quarters) became prominent.
- The Karla Caves’ chaitya hall is one of the largest and most impressive, featuring a grand horseshoe-shaped entrance and intricate wooden facades.
- Architectural Features:
- Increased complexity in design with the inclusion of columns, stupa-like structures, and elaborate facades.
- Incorporation of wooden architectural elements, both functional and decorative.
Early Satavahana and Kushan Periods (1st century BCE – 2nd century CE):
- Advancements in Buddhist Caves: Further refinement in cave architecture with more sophisticated designs and increased ornamentation.
- Ajanta Caves: Initial phases of excavation at Ajanta date back to this period. Caves 9 and 10 are examples of early chaitya halls with intricate carvings and detailed facades.
- Architectural Features:
- Development of detailed sculptures and frescoes depicting Buddhist themes.
- Integration of narrative art, with scenes from the Jataka tales and life of the Buddha.
Gupta Period (4th – 6th century CE):
- Golden Age of Cave Architecture: The Gupta period is often considered the golden age of Indian art and architecture, including rock-cut caves. This era saw a flowering of both Buddhist and Hindu rock-cut architecture.
- Ellora Caves: This site exemplifies the zenith of rock-cut architecture, featuring a series of caves dedicated to Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism.
- The Kailasa temple (Cave 16) at Ellora is a monumental example of rock-cut architecture, carved entirely from a single rock and showcasing advanced engineering and artistic skills.
- Architectural Features:
- Increased sophistication in structural design, with multi-storied caves and complex layouts.
- Richly decorated interiors and exteriors with intricate carvings, sculptures, and paintings.
- Development of Hindu rock-cut temples alongside Buddhist and Jain caves, reflecting the religious diversity of the period.
Conclusion
Starting with simple, functional designs, Indian rock-cut architecture evolved into highly complex and ornate structures that reflected the religious and cultural dynamism of the times.
Ethics
Q3. What do you understand by the terms “Human action” and “Action of human”. Does ethics deal with both of these terms? Justify with example
Introduction
Scholastic philosophy outlines a distinction between Actus Hominis and Actus Humanus i.e. ‘Acts of Man/Human’ and ‘Human Acts’ respectively. They are two different ethical terms often used in ethics. It is the intention which makes the difference between human actions and the actions of humans.
Body
- Human action refers to any intentional behaviour or activity carried out by individuals or groups that involves purposeful decision-making and the exertion of effort to achieve specific goals or outcomes. In other words, human actions are those actions that are done by humans consciously, deliberately and in view of an end.
- Eg: Cutting down forests to build a dam on a running river can be termed as human action.
- Some of the key characteristics of human action are:
- Intentionality: Human actions are deliberate and purposeful, driven by conscious choice.
- Agency: Individuals possess agency, the capacity to initiate and control their actions.
- Contextual Factors: Actions are influenced by personal factors (such as beliefs, values, and emotions) and situational factors (such as opportunities, and constraints).
- Consequences: Human actions have consequences, which can be anticipated or unintended, impacting individuals, communities, and the broader environment.
- Actions of humans refer to the behaviours, decisions, and activities performed by individuals or groups that are observable and have tangible consequences. These actions of humans may not be wilfully, voluntarily, consciously and deliberately done but all the same, they are done by humans.
- Eg: Sleeping or walking in the public park.
- Some of the key characters of Action of Human are:
- Intentionality: Human actions are not deliberate and not purposeful, driven by subconscious choice.
- Agency: Individuals possess lower control, lower capacity to initiate and control their actions.
- Consequences: Human actions have consequences, however, they can’t be anticipated easily.
Ethics deals with voluntary actions hence we deal only with human actions but not actions of humans because:
- Ethics is concerned with understanding and evaluating the moral principles and values that guide human actions. It explores questions such as what is right or wrong in human conduct.
- g.: Adhere to individual and social morals like compassion, empathy and tolerance.
- Ethics provides normative guidance on how individuals or groups ought to behave based on ethical theories, principles, and standards.
- Eg: Deontology and teleology theories to determine one’s action.
- Ethics emphasizes individual responsibility for one’s actions and decisions. It considers how personal choices align with ethical norms and values, promoting accountability and integrity.
- Ethical reasoning involves evaluating the foreseeable consequences of actions and weighing ethical considerations to make morally sound decisions.
Conclusion
Hence ethics is concerned with the moral dimensions of human actions on how individuals should behave in accordance with ethical principles and values. It provides frameworks for evaluating actions based on ethical norms, whereas “actions of humans” encompasses all observable behaviours without necessarily focusing on their moral or ethical implications.
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