[Mission 2024] Insights SECURE SYNOPSIS: 31 October 2023

NOTE: Please remember that following ‘answers’ are NOT ‘model answers’. They are NOT synopsis too if we go by definition of the term. What we are providing is content that both meets demand of the question and at the same

General Studies – 1

Topic: geographical features and their location-changes in critical geographical features (including water-bodies and ice-caps) and in flora and fauna and the effects of such changes.

1. The melting of ice sheets has far-reaching implications for global climate and the livelihoods of people worldwide. Addressing the melting of ice sheets is a critical aspect of mitigating the impacts of climate change and ensuring a sustainable future. Analyse. (250 words)

Difficulty level: Moderate

Reference: Indian Express

Why the question:

The article discusses the alarming ice sheet melt in West Antarctica, emphasizing its significance in contributing to rising sea levels and the impact on global climate change.

Key Demand of the question:

To write about impact of melting of ice sheets and ways to address it.

Directive word: 

Analyse – When asked to analyse, you must examine methodically the structure or nature of the topic by separating it into component parts and present them in a summary.

Structure of the answer:

Introduction: 

Begin by defining an ice sheet.

Body:

First, write about the various causes of melting of ice sheets across the world.

Next, write about the impact of the above – Sea Level Rise, Ecosystem Disruption and Socioeconomic Consequences etc.

Next, write steps that are needed to overcome the above.

Conclusion:

Conclude by writing a way forward.

Introduction

An ice sheet is a mass of glacial ice that covers more than 50,000 square kilometers (19,000 square miles) of land. Ice sheets are also known as continental glaciers.

By 2300, ice sheets covering West Antarctica and Greenland will have shed trillions of tonnes in mass. Sea levels could then go up by more than five metres under that temperature scenario.

Body

Importance of Ice sheets:

• The Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets contain more than 99 percent of the freshwater ice on Earth.
• This region stores about 70% of the world’s fresh water in the form of snow and ice.
• The average annual temperature ranges from about -10°C on the Antarctic coast to -60°C at the highest points of the interior.
• Its immense ice sheet is upto 4.8 km thick and contains 90% of the world’s fresh water; enough to raise the sea levels by around 60 meters, if it were to melt completely.
• The presence of the high ice sheet and the polar location make Antarctica a powerful heat sink that strongly affects the climate of the whole Earth.
• It modulates exchanges of heat, moisture, and gases between the atmosphere and ocean and, forces the formation of cold oceanic bottom waters that spread out under the world’s oceans. Alterations to this system are likely to affect climate all over the planet.
• Large high-altitude plateaus on the ice caps alter storm tracks and create cold downslope winds close to the ice surface.

Factors that are aggravating melting of ice sheets covering West Antarctica and Greenland:

• Anthropogenic activityis at the root of this phenomenon. Specifically, since the industrial revolution, carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions have raised temperatures even higher in the poles.
• Burning of fossil fuelshas resulted in the build-up of greenhouse gases influencing the warming trend because they trap heat in the atmosphere.
• Oil and gas drillingthat emits methane which is the main constituent of natural gas is another contributor.
• Methane is more damaging to environment than carbon dioxide, locking in heat more efficiently and escalating global warming.
• Deforestation, on the rise, across the globe, has a lot of negative effects like a rise in sea levels.
• In summer, Ice breaking shipsthat head to the north in the Arctic Ocean leave trails of open waters, leaving the oceans with lesser ability to reflect back sun rays.
• Consequently, water gets heated up and melts more ice. This is also contributing to Global Warming.

Challenges posed by the sea-level rise:

• Seas and oceans:
  • The Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets hold enough frozen water to lift oceans about 13 metres. East Antarctica, which is more stable, holds another 50 metres’ worth.
  • Melting glaciers add to rising global sea levels, which in turn increases coastal erosion.
  • The Greenland ice sheet is disappearing four times faster than in 2003 and already contributes 20% of current sea level rise.
  • Storm surge gets elevated as warming air and ocean temperatures create more frequent and intense coastal storms like hurricanes and typhoons.
  • The ocean currents get influenced, as massive amounts of very cold glacial-melt water entering warmer ocean waters slows down ocean currents.
• Climate and weather patterns:
  • As permafrost thaws, the trapped carbon inside it is released to the atmosphere in the form of methane, a powerful greenhouse gas.
  • This process leads to more climate change and is an example of a positive feedback loop, which happens when warming causes changes that lead to even more warming.
  • The Arctic is warming twice as fast as anywhere on earth, and research shows the polar vortex is appearing outside of the Arctic more frequently because of changes to the jet stream, caused by a combination of warming air and ocean temperatures in the Arctic and the tropics.
  • The glacial melt in Antarctica and Greenland is changing the circulation of the Atlantic Ocean and has been linked to more destructive storms and hurricanes around the planet.
• Urban areas and cities

• Most of the people found to be at risk from coastal events live in Asia residing in countries like China, Bangladesh, India, Vietnam, Indonesia, Thailand, the Philippines and Japan.
• Very large fractions of coastal populations in these countries will be inundated.
• Other than Asia and the Netherlands, there are 20 countries (13 of which are small island nations) in which more than a tenth of their population are expected to reside below the high tide line by 2100, and this is with deep cuts to emissions.
• Coastal cities, such as Alexandria, Ho Chi Minh City, Basra and Shanghai are among the most vulnerable and large portions of Mumbai and Kolkata will be fully submerged by 2050.
• The effects on the economy, coastal communities, infrastructure and land will be immense and people living along the coast will be forced to move inland, probably to nearby towns and cities.

• Humans and wildlife:
  • Industries that thrive on vibrant fisheries will be affected as warmer waters change where and when fish spawn.
  • Coastal communities will suffer as flooding becomes more frequent and storms become more intense.
  • In the Arctic, as sea ice melts, wildlife like walrus are losing their home and polar bears are spending more time on land, causing higher rates of conflict between people and bears.
  • The habitats of several marine and terrestrial species are changing which results in the imbalance of the food chain.
  • When permafrost melts, the land above it sinks or changes shape. Sinking land can damage buildings and infrastructure such as roads, airports, and water and sewer pipes and also affects ecosystems.

Global measures undertaken:

• The International Cryosphere Climate Initiative (ICCI)was launched in 2009. is a network of senior policy experts and researchers working with governments and organizations to create, shape and implement initiatives designed to preserve as much of the Earth’s cryosphere as possible.
• To prevent the severe effects of climate change, the UN signed the Paris agreement in 2016, an international treaty designed to keep the average global temperature well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels until greenhouse gas emissions are reduced.
• 2019 UN Climate Action Summitsaw some commitment from countries to advance their Carbon Neutrality efforts.
• India has worked towards International Solar Alliancewhich is a step forward in consciously trying to reduce the amount of greenhouse gas emissions.
• International instruments such as The Antarctic Treaty and the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR)that aims for the protection of the continent’s ocean wildlife.

Way forward:

• Climate policy is consistent with the 1.5°C goal could cost upto 6. 3 trillion dollars per year globally. But the cost likely outweighs the consequences of inaction. If global temperatures rise more than 1.5 °C, humankind will have to make adaptations that will make a serious dent on the world’s economy and reduce food security and biodiversity.
• Delaying action any further will need nations to remove CO2 at an unmanageable magnitude that current technology and resources cannot achieve.
• 2020 is a critical year for climate change. Countries will meet to renegotiate their commitments at the UN Climate change conference in Glasgow in November 2020. But extensive actions must be taken to avert a future crisis.
• There are some changes that are needed to chip away the emissions. These include:
  • Establishing vehicle emission standards and investing in public transportation that runs on electricity.
  • Pricing carbon, i.e., making major polluters pay for their emissions. This provides an incentive for major emitters to reduce their output.
  • Phasing out coal power plants.
  • With renewable energy technology becoming increasingly affordable, Solar power and Wind turbines are needed to phase out coal plants. However, it is important to note that these changes on a global scale will not be cheap.
• While immediate action is needed to save the earth, it is not too late to do something about it either.
• It may be important to revisit the commitments of global climate change before it is too late, as the changes that have already set in due to climate change might continue to cause damage for a several decades, even if solid measures are taken to contain the changes.
• Incremental changes no longer enough to stall devastating effects of climate change. The need of the hour is rapid and transformational changes.

General Studies – 2

Topic: Salient features of the Representation of People’s Act.

2. Electoral bonds need a revaluation and potential reforms to fulfil their intended purpose effectively. Critically Analyse. (250 words)

Difficulty level: Moderate

Reference: Indian Express

Why the question:

In response to a Supreme Court query about electoral bonds, India’s Attorney General argued that electoral bonds promote clean and transparent donations to political parties.

Key Demand of the question:

To critically analyse the performance of electoral bonds in improving transparency.

Directive word: 

Critically analyze – When asked to analyse, you must examine methodically the structure or nature of the topic by separating it into component parts and present them in a summary. When ‘critically’ is suffixed or prefixed to a directive, one needs to look at the good and bad of the topic and give a balanced judgment on the topic.

Structure of the answer:

Introduction: 

Begin by giving aims and objectives of introduction of electoral bonds.

Body:

In the first part, mention the functioning and features of electoral bond scheme – can be bought by any Indian citizen or company incorporated in India. The scheme allows parties to receive these bonds.

Next, write about how this new instrument of political party funding is aimed to ensure greater transparency by addressing the issue of anonymous financing. It sought to eliminate black money from the system.

Next, write about how they have increased opacity instead of increasing transparency.

Conclusion:

Conclude with a way forward to improve transparency with respect to electoral bonds.

Introduction

An electoral bond is a non – redeemable debt instrument. Designed to be a bearer financial instrument in the manner of a promissory note it is much more similar to a bank note which is liquid able in nature, or generally which is payable to the bearer on demand. This bond can be purchased by any citizen belonging to our country or any corporation registered or established in India.

In response to a Supreme Court query about electoral bonds, India’s Attorney General argued that electoral bonds promote clean and transparent donations to political parties.

Body

About Electoral Bond

• Electoral bonds have been introduced to promote transparency in funding and donation received by political parties.
• The scheme envisages building a transparent system of acquiring bonds with validated KYC and an audit trail. A limited window and a very short maturity period would make misuse improbable.
• The electoral bonds will prompt donors to take the banking route to donate, with their identity captured by the issuing authority. This will ensure transparency and accountability and is a big step towards electoral reform.
• The previous system of cash donations from anonymous sources is wholly non-transparent. The donor, the donee, the quantum of donations and the nature of expenditure are all undisclosed.
• According to government the system of Bonds will encourage political donations of clean money from individuals, companies, HUF, religious groups, charities, etc.
• After purchasing the bonds, these entities can hand them to political parties of their choice, which must redeem them within the prescribed time.
• Some element of transparency would be introduced in as much as all donors declare in their accounts the amount of bonds that they have purchased and all parties declare the quantum of bonds that they have received.
• The electoral bonds are aimed at rooting out the current system of largely anonymous cash donations made to political parties which lead to the generation of black money in the economy.

Critical analysis of electoral bonds

• Since its introduction, electoral bonds have become an essential source of financing for all major political parties.
  • Between March 2018 and January 2021, electoral bonds worth Rs 6,514.50 crore were redeemed by parties.
• While the ruling government has managed to receive the lion’s share (60.17%) of political funding made through the bonds, over half of the total income of all national and regional parties too was contributed through this method.
• for both the principal political parties, it seems that the quantum of political donations channelised through cash donations/non-identifiable sources has decreased substantially.
• Instead, today more funds are channelised through the formal banking system. This was not the case with the earlier system in which half of the political donations were not traceable as they were made in cash form.
  • Viewed from this angle, the electoral bonds scheme is an improvement over the previous system.
• Electoral bonds have only legitimized opacity: The move could be misused, given the lack of disclosure requirements for individuals purchasing electoral bonds.
• Electoral bonds make electoral funding even more opaque. It will bring more and more black money into the political system. Electoral bonds would cause a “serious impact” on transparency in funding of political parties
• With electoral bonds there can be a legal channel for companies to round-trip their tax haven cash to a political party. If this could be arranged, then a businessman could lobby for a change in policy, and legally funnel a part of the profits accruing from this policy change to the politician or party that brought it about.
• The amendments would pump in black money for political funding through shell companies and allow “unchecked foreign funding of political parties in India which could lead to Indian politics being influenced by foreign companies.
• Companies no longer need to declare the names of the parties to which they have donated so shareholders won’t know where their money has gone.
• They have potential to load the dice heavily in favour of the ruling party as the donor bank and the receiver bank know the identity of the person. But both the banks report to the RBI which, in turn, is subject to the Central government’s will to know.

Alternate mechanisms for electoral funding

• According to Former Chief Election Commissioner S.Y. Quraishi, an alternative worth exploring is a National Electoral Fund to which all donors can contribute.
• The funds would be allocated to political parties in proportion to the votes they get. Not only would this protect the identity of donors, it would also weed out black money from political funding.
• The total cost of MPLADS funding for all MPs is nearly ₹4,000 crore every year, and scrapping the scheme even for one year in an MP’s five-year term will be enough to bankroll state funding of Lok Sabha candidates. This is a legalized way of allowing MPs and MLAs to shower money on their constituencies at state expense.
• Direct funding of candidates, who will be reimbursed according to their final share of the votes cast.
• The best way to bring about such transparency in political funding is to put a complete ban on cash donations by individuals or companies to political parties.
• Making it mandatory for all parties to receive donations only by cheque, or other modes of money transfer.
• There should be clear provisions for getting tax benefits for all those making such donations.
• Make it mandatory for political parties to submit details of all donations received with the Election Commission and also with the income-tax department.
• State funding of political parties can be considered. The Indrajit Gupta Committee on State Funding of Elections had endorsed partial state funding of recognised political parties.
• The mechanics of this process need to be carefully worked out to establish the allocation of money to national parties, State parties and independent candidates, and to check candidate’s own expenditure over and above that which is provided by the state.
• Voters have to be made aware through awareness campaigns about ill effects of money power during elections. Bringing political parties under the preview of RTI act.

Conclusion

The 255^th Law Commission Report on Electoral Reforms observed that opacity in political funding results in “lobbying and capture” of the government by big donors. Various commissions, including the Election Commission, have given detailed recommendations on suitable remedies. Public funding needs to be examined and introduced with proper checks and balances.

General Studies – 3

Topic: Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization, of resources, growth, development and employment.

3. Open market operations (OMO) is a crucial tool for central banks to achieve their policy objectives, such as controlling inflation and supporting economic growth. Explain. (250 words)

Difficulty level: Easy

Reference: Indian Express ,  Insights on India

Why the question:

The article discusses the importance of Open Market Operations (OMO) in the context of the Indian monetary policy

Key Demand of the question:

To write about the impact of OMO on macroeconomic parameters.

Directive word:

Explain – Clarify the topic by giving a detailed account as to how and why it occurred, or what is the context. You must be defining key terms wherever appropriate and substantiate with relevant associated facts.

Structure of the answer:

Introduction: 

Begin by defining OMO.

Body:

First, explain the process of OMO – sale and purchase of securities and the methods it is done.

Next, write about impact of OMO on various macroeconomic parameters such as – inflation, growth, credit supply interest rates and exchange supply etc.

Conclusion:

Conclude by summarising.

Introduction

Open market operations (OMO) is the sale and purchase of government securities and treasury bills by RBI or the central bank of the country. The objective of OMO is to regulate the money supply in the economy. It is one of the quantitative monetary policy tools. Commercial banks and financial institutions participate in the Open Market Operations (OMO).

Body

About OMO

• Open market operations are the major instrument of monetary control in industrial countries and are becoming important to developing countries and economies in transition.
• Open market operations allow central banks great flexibility in the timing and volume of monetary operations at their own initiative, encourage an impersonal, business like relationship with participants in the marketplace, and provide a means of avoiding the inefficiencies of direct controls.
• There are two types of open market operations namely Outright OMO and Repo.

Impact on various macroeconomic parameters

• Expansionary policy
  • During a recession or economic downturn, RBI will seek to expand the supply of money in the economy, with a goal of lowering the rate at which banks lend to each other overnight.
  • To do this, the RBI will purchase bonds from banks and other financial institutions and deposit payment into the accounts of the buyers.
  • This increases the amount of money that banks and financial institutions have on hand, and banks can use these funds to provide loans.
  • With more money on hand, banks will lower interest rates to entice consumers and businesses to borrow and invest, thereby stimulating the economy and employment.
• Contractionary policy
  • RBI will undertake the opposite process when the economy is overheating and inflation is reaching the limit of its comfort zone.
  • When RBI sells bonds to the banks, it takes money out of the financial system, reducing the money supply.
  • This will cause interest rates to rise, discouraging individuals and businesses from borrowing and investing, while encouraging them to put their money in less productive investments such as interest-bearing savings accounts and certificates of deposit.
  • This has the effect of slowing inflation and economic growth.

Conclusion

The RBI performs Open Market Operations based on the macroeconomic scenario in the Indian economy. OMO has been a potent tool to manipulate the readily available liquidity in the economy which in turn have cascading effects on inflation, bond yields etc. RBI’s buying or selling of securities has ripple effects through the money supply, interest rates, economic growth, and employment.

Topic: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways etc.

4. In the context of railway safety in India, critically analyse the major causes contributing to train accidents, and propose a comprehensive strategy, encompassing both infrastructure and operational aspects, to mitigate these risks and ensure the safety of passengers and efficient train operations. (250 words)

Difficulty level: Tough

Reference: The Hindu , Insights on India

Why the question:

A train accident in Andhra Pradesh has resulted in an increased death toll and a higher number of injured individuals.

Key Demand of the question:

To write about the causes of railway accidents in India and ways to avoid them.

Directive word:

Critically analyze – When asked to analyse, you must examine methodically the structure or nature of the topic by separating it into component parts and present them in a summary. When ‘critically’ is suffixed or prefixed to a directive, one needs to look at the good and bad of the topic and give a balanced judgment on the topic.

Structure of the answer:

Introduction: 

Begin by giving context.

Body:

First, write about the causes of Railway accidents in the country – track failures, human errors, equipment malfunctions, level crossings, overcrowding, sabotage, and natural disasters etc.

Next, write about the steps that are needed to mitigate the above risks.

Conclusion:

Conclude by writing way forward.

Introduction

The Indian Railways is one of the largest railway networks in the world, with millions of people relying on it for transportation every day. Statistics show that over the last two decades, the number of derailments which constitute the majority of accidents has drastically declined from around 350 per year around the turn of the millennium, to 22 in 2021-22.

The death toll in the train accident near Kantakapalli in Vizianagaram district of Andhra Pradesh rose to 14, and the number of injured has gone up to 38, according to officials. Railway officials primarily suspected that “overshot” was the main cause of the fatal accident that occurred near the Kantakapalli station, near here (about 40 km away), on the Chennai-Howrah main line.

Body

Major causes leading to railway accidents

• Derailments have been a major cause of train accidents in India.
• Lapses in safety protocols, track maintenance, and failure to identify and rectify track defects have resulted in derailments.
• The railway infrastructure, which includes tracks, bridges, overhead wires, and rolling stock, is often defective due to poor maintenance, ageing, vandalism, sabotage, or natural disasters.
• Much of the infrastructure was built in the 19th and 20th centuries and has not been upgraded to meet the growing demand and modern standards.
• The railway system also suffers from a lack of funds, corruption, and inefficiency, which hamper its development and maintenance.
• Moreover, many routes are operating at over 100% capacity, which increases the risk of accidents due to congestion and overloading.
• The railway staff, who are responsible for operating, maintaining, and managing the trains and tracks, are prone to human errors due to fatigue, negligence, corruption, or disregard for safety rules and procedures.
• Human errors can result in wrong signalling, miscommunication, over speeding, or overlooking defects or hazards.
• The railway staff also lack adequate training and communication skills, which affect their performance and coordination.
• The signalling system, which controls the movement and direction of trains on the tracks, can fail due to technical glitches, power outages, or human errors.
• Signalling failures can lead to trains running on the wrong track, colliding with other trains or stationary objects, or overshooting stations. For example, the recent train accident in Odisha was reportedly caused by a change in electronic interlocking that was not communicated properly to the drivers.
• Unmanned level crossings are places where railway tracks crossroads without any barriers or signals to regulate traffic. They pose a high risk of accidents as vehicles or pedestrians may not notice the approaching train or may try to cross the track when the train is near. In 2018-19, UMLCs accounted for 16% of all train accidents in India.
• The railways have eliminated all the unmanned level crossings (UMLCs) on broad gauge routes, but there are still many manned level crossings (MLCs) that pose a risk of accidents.

Government Initiatives undertaken so far

• KAVACH is an indigenously developed Automatic Train Protection(ATP) System for Indian Railways.
• The government initiated the Rashtriya Rail Sanraksha Kosh in 2017-18, a dedicated fund aimed at carrying out safety-related work in a systematic manner.
• Project Mission Raftar is an Indian Railway project, introduced in the Railway Budget of 2016-17 and approved by NITI Aayog in 2017. The goal is to double the average speed of freight trains and increase passenger train speed by 50%.
• The government has been investing significant funds in the modernization and upgradation of railway infrastructure. This includes the electrification of railway lines, the expansion of rail networks, and the introduction of high-speed and ultra-high-speed lines, such as the Vande Bharat Express.
• Lighter and safer coaches for Mail/Express trains. These coaches are based on German technology and have better anti-climbing features, fire retardant materials, higher speed potential and longer service life than conventional ICF design coaches.
• The government has been working towards the elimination of manned level crossings, which are prone to accidents. Efforts are being made to replace them with underpasses, overpasses, and other safety measures to enhance railway safety.
• Efforts have been made to implement safety measures across the railway network. These include the installation of fire and smoke detection systems in coaches, the provision of fire extinguishers, and the development of technologies like the Kavach application that aids locomotive pilots in triggering the brake system automatically.

Way forward

• Allocate more funds for track renewal, bridge repair, signalling upgrade, coach refurbishment, etc.
• Provide regular and comprehensive training to the railway staff on the latest technologies, equipment, systems, safety rules and procedures.
• Construct Road overbridges (ROBs) or road underbridges (RUBs) to replace the unmanned and manned level crossings.
• Install anti-collision devices (ACDs) such asKavach/ Train Collision Avoidance System (TCAS), Train Protection Warning System (TPWS), Automatic Train Control (ATC), etc. The railways are in the process of installing these technologies on some sections of tracks, but they need to be expanded to cover the entire network.
• Reward the railway staff based on their performance and compliance with the safety rules and procedures.
• Transfer the non-core activities such as maintaining hospitals, colleges etc to private or public sector entities, which can improve efficiency and reduce costs.
• Set up a railway safety authority as a statutory body with powers to frame safety standards, conduct safety audits and inspections, enforce accountability and penalties for lapses, and investigate accidents.
• Monitor, evaluate and audit the safety performance of the railway staff, infrastructure and equipment, and enforce strict accountability and penalties for lapses.
• Improve the communication and coordination among the railway board, zonal railways, divisions, production units, research organisations, etc., which are involved in railway operations.

Topic: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment

5. Wetlands are of paramount importance as they play a crucial role in preserving various natural cycles and providing essential support to a diverse array of biodiversity. Elucidate. (250 words)

Difficulty level: Moderate

Reference: Insights on India

Why the question:

The question is part of the static syllabus of General studies paper – 3 and mentioned as part of Mission-2024 Secure timetable.

Key Demand of the question:

To write about the importance of wetland ecosystem.

Elucidate – Give a detailed account as to how and why it occurred, or what is the context. You must be defining key terms wherever appropriate and substantiate with relevant associated facts.

Structure of the answer:

Introduction: 

Begin by defining a wetland and its types.

Body:

Write about the various functions performed by a wetland- water-related ecosystem services, productive areas for plant life and animals, major habitat for most of the world’s waterbirds and key habitat for migratory species, important source of food and high recreational, historical, scientific, and cultural values.

Next, write about Ramsar convention, its achievements in protecting wetlands and limitations.

Conclusion:

Conclude by writing a way forward.

Introduction

Wetlands are ecotones between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. They get periodically get inundated with water. They support a flourishing community of aquatic organisms including frogs and other amphibians. Swamps, marshes and mangroves are examples of wetlands. Wetlands are indispensable for the countless benefits or “ecosystem services” that they provide humanity, ranging from freshwater supply, food and building materials, and biodiversity, to flood control, groundwater recharge, and climate change mitigation.

Body

major types of wetlands across the world

• Swamps: A swamp is a wetland permanently saturated with water and dominated by trees, and are of two types
  • Freshwater Swamps
    • Freshwater swamps often form on flat land around lakes or streams, where the water table is high and runoff is slow
    • Water-tolerant plants, such as cattails, lotus, and cypress, grow in the swamp’s wet soil. These plants are key to maintaining the swamp’s ecosystem
    • Freshwater swamps are common in tropical areas near the Equator.
  • Saltwater Swamps
    • Formation of these swamps begins with bare flats of mud or sand that are thinly covered by seawater during high tides.
    • The brackish water of saltwater swamps is not entirely seawater, but not entirely freshwater, either
    • The Sundarbans, a saltwater swamp in India and Bangladesh, has the largest mangrove forest in the world
  • Marshes
    • North and south of the tropics, swamps give way to marshes.
    • These wetlands form a flat, grassy fringe near river mouths, in bays, and along coastlines. Many are alternately flooded and exposed by the movement of tides.
    • Marshes are often divided into
      • Freshwater Marshes
        • Freshwater marshes, often found hundreds of kilometers from the coast, are dominated by grasses and aquatic plants. These marshes often develop around lakes and streams.
        • Many freshwater marshes lie in the prairie pothole region of North America, the heart of which extends from central Canada through the northern Midwest of the United States.
      • Saltwater Marshes
        • Salt marshes are some of the richest ecosystems for biodiversity. Dominated by grasses, they provide food and shelter for algae, fungi, shellfish, fish, amphibians, and reptiles.
        • A few mangrove trees may dot saltwater marshes, but they are dominated by grasses and a layer of algae called an algal mat. This algal mat is home to many insects and amphibians.
      • Bogs
        • Swamps and marshes are generally found in warm climates. Bogs are more common in cold or even Arctic areas in North America, Europe, and Asia.
        • Bogs are often called moors or fens in Europe, and muskegs in Canada.
        • Like many wetlands, bogs develop in areas where the water table, or the upper surface of underground water, is high
        • The oldest, partially decayed vegetation at the bottom of the bog forms a thick, spongy mat called peat.
        • Unlike other wetlands, bogs usually are not agriculturally fertile. The amount of acid in the soil and water is generally higher than that in swamps or marshes.
        • Because of the limited species of plants, bogs do not have the biodiversity common in other types of wetlands

Critical role played by Wetlands in the Ecological conservation of Earth:

• Carbon Sequestration:Swamps, mangroves, peat lands, mires and marshes play an important role in carbon cycle. Wetland soils may contain as much as 200 times more carbon than its vegetation.
  • Eg: In India, coastal wetlands are playing a major role in carbon sequestration. The total extent of coastal ecosystems (including mangroves) in India is around 43000 km. Overall, mangroves are able to sequester about 1.5 metric tonne of carbon per hectare per year and the upper layers of mangrove sediments have high carbon content, with conservative estimates indicating the levels of 10 percent.
• Flood attenuation: Wetlands function as natural sponges that trap and slowly release surface water, rain, snowmelt, groundwater and flood waters. Many water-stressed regions in South Africa are subject to high intensity rainfall over very short periods, often resulting in flash floods. Wetlands are effective in spreading out and slowing down floodwaters, thereby reducing the severity of floods downstream.
  • Eg: A large network of lakes and ponds in major cities like Srinagar, Bhopal, Bengaluru, Chennai and Hyderabad were constructed with the objective of flood control
• Regulation of stream flow & groundwater recharge:wetlands are often compared to sponges, in their ability to absorb water in wet periods, and release it during dry periods. The absorption thus helps in groundwater recharging too.
  • Eg: floodplains of rivers like Ganga and Brahmaputra
• Nutrient assimilation & recycling: removal by the wetland of phosphates and nitrates carried by runoff water. This takes place through the presence of wetland vegetation and the action of anaerobic bacteria (which would otherwise not exist in fast-flowing, energized streams or rivers). Thus, they help in nutrients recyclingand they carry out water purificationby filtration of sediments and nutrients from surface water.
• Erosion control:wetlands can limit the extent of erosion, predominantly through the protection provided by vegetation, and through their ability to reduce stream flow velocity. Buffer (act as a riparian buffer) shorelines against erosion and pollutants.
  • Eg:the mangroves along the sea shores, especially on the western coast in West Bengal and Odisha have been playing a major role in protecting the coastal environment from the destruction of cyclones that frequently emanate in the Bay of Bengal.
• Microclimate regulation: Wetland ecosystems play an important role in regulating local and regional climates through evaporative cooling effects that affect the exchange of energy and water with atmosphere.
  • Eg:For every land cover type in wetlands, vegetation has a better stabilizing effect on temperature, whereas a water body has a better stabilizing effect on wind speed and humidity. Dal lake in Kashmir has a cooling effect on surroundings.
• Promotes Biodiversity: Wetlands are important in supporting species diversity. Because wetlands provide an environment where photosynthesis can occur and where the recycling of nutrients can take place, they play a significant role in the support of food chains.
  • Eg: In India lakes, rivers and other freshwater bodies support a large diversity of biota representing almost all taxonomic groups. For example, freshwater ecosystems of Western Ghats alone have 290 species of fish. Similarly, Loktak Lake is famous for being the only refuge of the endangered Sangai (Manipur brow-antlered deer).
• Productive Ecosystem: Wetlands are among the most productive ecosystems in the world, comparable to rain forests and coral reefs. An immense variety of species of microbes, plants, insects, amphibians, reptiles, birds, fish and mammals can be part of a wetland ecosystem.
  • Eg:In many such wetland areas of India, like Bharatpur wild life sanctuary in Rajasthan, and little Rann of Kutch and coastal areas of Saurashtra in Gujarat, many migratory species of birds, including siberian crane, from western and European countries come during winter.
• Promotes Genetic diversity:They act as a genetic reservoir for various species of plants, especially rice.
• Tourism:Wet-lands such as coral reefs, beaches, reservoirs, lakes and rivers are considered to be a significant part of the tourism experience in the country.
  • For instance, as per an estimate, every year, around seven million tourist visit Kerala’s backwaters, beaches and wildlife sanctuaries, 3 million visit Uttarakhand’s lakes and other natural wetlands and one million visit Dal lake in Jammu and Kashmir.
• Cultural Significance: Wetlands especially lakes and ponds are intrinsically linked to the local culture. They are revered by the masses in recognition of the fact that they are the means of sustenance of their livelihood.
  • Eg: Pushkar lake in Rajasthan and Ramappa lake in Telangana

Threats to wetlands

Measures needed

• Protection: The primary necessity today is to protect the existing wetlands. Of the many wetlands in India only around 68 wetlands are protected. But there are thousands of other wetlands that are biologically and economically important but have no legal status.
• Planning, managing and monitoring: Wetlands that come under the Protected area network have management plans but others do not. It is important for various stakeholders along with the local community and corporate sector to come together for an effective management plan. Active monitoring of these wetland systems over a period of time is essential.
• Comprehensive inventory: There has been no comprehensive inventory of all the Indian wetlands despite the efforts by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Asian Wetland Bureau and World Wide Fund for Nature. The inventory should involve the flora, fauna, and biodiversity along with values. It should take into account the various stakeholders in the community too.
• Legislation: Although several laws protect wetlands there is no special legislation pertaining specially to these ecosystems. Environment Impact Assessmentneeded for major development projects highlighting threats to wetlands need to be formulated.
• Coordinated approach: Since wetlands are common property with multi-purpose utility, their protection and management also need to be a common responsibility.
• Research: There is a necessity for research in the formulation of national strategy to understand the dynamics of these ecosystems. This could be useful for the planners to formulate strategies for the mitigation of pollution.
• Building awareness: For achieving any sustainable success in the protection of these wetlands, awareness among the general public, educational and corporate institutions must be created.

Conclusion

Communities engage with wetlands in various ways – from seeking livelihoods to spiritual fulfilment. The values community hold for wetlands are expressed in diverse ways. It is important to integrate community linkages in wetlands management planning, and incentivize community stewardship. This is crucial as over 85% of wetlands in India are in the form of village ponds and tanks.

Topic: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment

6. Wildlife sanctuaries and national parks are confronted with a grave threat as they experience habitat loss and fragmentation due to various developmental projects and encroachment activities. Analyse. (250 words)

Difficulty level: Easy

Reference: Insights on India

Why the question:

The question is part of the static syllabus of General studies paper – 3 and mentioned as part of Mission-2024 Secure timetable.

Key Demand of the question:

To write about the threats faced by the wildlife sanctuaries and national parks in India.

Directive word: 

Analyse – When asked to analyse, you must examine methodically the structure or nature of the topic by separating it into component parts and present them in a summary.

Structure of the answer:

Introduction: 

Begin by mentioning that The Union Government has established a country-wide protected area network for protection of these species and their habitats of threatened flora and fauna under Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972.

Body:

First, write about the threats to wildlife sanctuaries and national parks from habitat loss. Substantiate with examples. For e.g: Clearance of partis of Valley of flowers for Chardham road project.

Next, write the reasons for decline in key species – due to over-collection to supply domestic and foreign medicinal markets, over exploitation, forest degradation etc.

Conclusion:

Conclude by writing a way forward.

Introduction

India has around 5% of its geographical area as protected area with 566 existing wildlife sanctuaries and 104 existing national parks in India. Despite being party to CITES and enacting Wildlife protection Act in India, there are many conservation challenges faced by sanctuaries and national parks.

Body

Threats faced by wildlife sanctuaries and national parks

• Habitat loss: Due to flood and siltation, size of water bodies inside the park are shrinking. Siltation also affects the grazing areas of herbivorous animals.
• Invasive species such as water hyacinth and Mimosa are great threats to Kaziranga. Water hyacinth clog water bodies and depletes oxygen in the water.
  • It threatens underwater life and shrinks the size of water bodies.
  • Exotic leguminous species Mimosa was introduced in Tea gardens of Assam.The species have a poisonous amino acid (Mimosin). So, they are harmful for herbivorous
• Man-animal conflicts: No park exists in isolation, and that fact is becoming increasingly clear as the areas surrounding parks are developed for living space, agriculture, mining, forestry, and more.
  • The iconic species protected inside the parks don’t recognize boundaries and must often move in and out of the parks to feed, mate, or migrate.
  • Avani Tigress was killed due to public backlash.
• Roads through sanctuaries:Experts found as many as 85 roadkills in the past six months within the sanctuary limits.
  • There is uncontrolled passage of heavy vehicles during night-time threatening biodiversity.
• Poor conservation infrastructure:The rangers and frontline staff deployed in many parks and sanctuaries lacks modern weapons, advanced communication systems and efficient means of transportation. There is also lack of proper camps and watch towers.
• Human interference:Illegal livestock grazing, illegal fishing, unplanned tourism infrastructure, highway traffic, tourism pressure, crop raiding, etc.
  • Mining, petroleum prospecting,clear-cut lumbering, and other developments are generally prohibited inside parks—but they still pose serious threats to water quality, clean air, and other vital aspects of the park environment.

Need of the hour

• WWF-India Eco-development project aims to develop a model programme that can be used all over the country to help resolve this conflict.
• Involve local communities in decision making like Critical tiger habitats Gram Sabha is given importance similar to the forest rights act.
• Implementing the Gadgil committee and K Kasturirangan committee and not to water down the original recommendations.
• Patrolling and wildlife monitoring had to be taken up on a priority basis and scientific studies to ascertain the status of key species have been undertaken with the help of research organizations.
• Participation of local communities: The participation of local youth has been actively sought for the management of Manas and its buffer regions.
  • These youth were employed as conservation volunteers on a monthly stipend and ration.
  • They assisted the forest department in surveillance and patrolling activities.
  • With the help of national and international nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), some of the youth were also trained to act as nature guides for small ecotourism enterprises.

Conclusion

The wildlife sanctuaries and national parks are established to provide protection to the endangered species. It is relatively hard to always relocate the animals from their natural territory, therefore, conserving them in their normal setting is advantageous. On of wildlife has major impact on entire human race and therefore must be taken up on war footing.

Measures and interest need to be channelled towards regrowing trees and increasing the land cover for forests. Reforestation and afforestation need to be promoted throughout the world. Proper forest management bodies need to be enforced to monitor wildlife actions and update on the latest. Care and habitation need to be provided to extinct species and efforts need to be taken to save them from becoming extinct.

General Studies – 4

Topic: dimensions of ethics;

7. Moral relativism is a philosophical viewpoint that asserts moral truths and values are not universally absolute but rather contingent upon the perspective of the individual or the cultural context in which they exist. Explain. (150 words)

Difficulty level: Easy

Reference: plato.stanford.edu

Why the question:

The question is part of the static syllabus of General studies paper – 4.

Key Demand of the question:

To explain the concept of Moral Relativism using examples.

Directive word: 

Explain – Clarify the topic by giving a detailed account as to how and why it occurred, or what is the context. You must be defining key terms wherever appropriate and substantiate with relevant associated facts.

Structure of the answer:

Introduction: 

Begin the answer by defining moral relativism and its aspects

Body:

Write the core argument on which moral relativism is based on, the existing differences in the moralities that people accept and live by. Mention various factors that give rise to Moral relativism.

Give few illustrations in the context of capital punishment, euthanasia, eating meat etc. and the varied constraints and dimensions based on which the morality of a situation or action is judged.

Conclusion:

Conclude by saying often, morality is more relative than absolute.

Conclude by stressing on the way to manage cognitive dissonance.

Introduction

Moral relativism is the idea that there is no universal or absolute set of moral principles. According to moral relativism, there is not a single true morality. There are a variety of possible moralities or moral frames of reference, and whether something is morally right or wrong, good or bad, just or unjust, etc. is a relative matter—relative to one or another morality or moral frame of reference. Something can be morally right relative to one moral frame of reference and morally wrong relative to another.

Body

Moral relativism can be captured in two following points

• Moral judgments are true or false and actions are right or wrong only relative to some particular standpoint (usually the moral framework of a specific community).
•  No standpoint can be proved objectively superior to any other.

Different groups of people may play different versions of football. Different societies may have different legal systems. Different people speak different languages. And different people may have different moralities. Moralities accepted at one time may fail to be accepted at another time. Individuals within any given group may have different moralities. A particular person may accept different mutually incompatible moralities at different times and even at the same time.

Various dimensions in which moralities differ

• Moralities differ in what they imply about abortion, capital punishment, euthanasia, religion, etiquette, slavery, caste systems, cannibalism, eating meat, what sorts of experiments on animals are permitted, and what sorts of experiments on human beings are permitted.
• They may differ concerning the relative importance of chastity in men and women, how many wives or husbands people can have, homosexuality, incest, and whether people in their twenties have special obligations toward their parents.
• They differ about whether there is an obligation not to lie to strangers and whether there is an obligation to help strangers who need help.
• They differ concerning the relative importance of equality versus liberty, who gets what, preserving natural beauty, and the acceptability of littering.

Over the years moral relativism has attracted a great deal of criticism, and not just from professional philosophers. One reason for this, of course, is that it is widely perceived to be a way of thinking that is on the rise. Another reason for so much trenchant criticism is that a relativistic view of morality is thought by many to have pernicious consequences.

Conclusion

Moral relativism is on the opposite end of the continuum from moral absolutism, which says that there is always one right answer to any ethical question. As relativists see it, they are not countenancing immorality, injustice, or moral nihilism; rather, they are trying to say something about the nature of moral claims and the justifications given for them.  The main problem they face is to show how the denial of objective moral truth need not entail a subjectivism that drains the rationality out of moral discourse.   Their critics, on the other hand, face the possibly even more challenging task of justifying the claim that there is such a thing as objective moral truth.

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