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General Studies – 1
Topic: Salient features of world’s physical geography.
Difficulty level: Easy
Reference: Insights on India
Why the question:
The question is part of the static syllabus of General studies paper – 1 and mentioned as part of Mission-2023 Secure timetable.
Key Demand of the question:
To write about the reasons for changing temperature, pressure and density in earth’s interior and importance of studying interior of the earth.
Structure of the answer:
Introduction:
Begin by giving a brief about the composition of the interior of the earth.
Body:
First, draw a small representative diagram of the interior of the earth. Highlight the changes in temperature, density and pressure along with it.
Next, write the reasons for changing temperature, pressure and density in earth’s interior.
Next, write about importance of studying interior of the earth.
Conclusion:
Conclude by summarising.
Introduction
The radius of the earth is 6,370 kms. Thus, it is impossible to reach the center of the earth and find out about the composition. Also, this composition is changing in nature. The rapid increase in temperature is also one of the factors that put a limit to direct observation of the earth’s interior. However, through some direct and indirect sources, the scientists have a fair idea about how the earth’s interior look like.
Body
Temperature
- A rise in temperature with increase in depth is observed in mines and deep wells.
- These evidence along with molten lava erupted from the earth’s interior supports that the temperature increases towards the centre of the earth.
- The different observations show that the rate of increase of temperature is not uniform from the surface towards the earth’s centre. It is faster at some places and slower at other places.
- In the beginning, this rate of increase of temperature is at an average rate of 1C for every 32m increase in depth.
- While in the upper 100kms, the increase in temperature is at the rate of 12C per km and in the next 300kms, it is 20C per km. But going further deep, this rate reduces to mere 10C per km.
- Thus, it is assumed that the rate of increase of temperature beneath the surface is decreasingtowards the centre (do not confuse rate of increase of temperature with increase of temperature. Temperature is always increasing from the earth’s surface towards the centre).
- The temperature at the centre is estimated to lie somewhere between 3000C and 5000C, may be that much higher due to the chemical reactions under high-pressure conditions.
- Even in such a high temperature also, the materials at the centre of the earth are in solid state because of the heavy pressure of the overlying materials.
Pressure
- Just like the temperature, the pressure is also increasing from the surface towards the centreof the earth.
- It is due to the huge weight of the overlying materials like rocks.
- It is estimated that in the deeper portions, the pressure is tremendously high which will be nearly 3 to 4 million times more than the pressure of the atmosphere at sea level.
- At high temperature, the materials beneath will melt towards the centre part of the earth but due to heavy pressure, these molten materials acquire the properties of a solid and are probably in a plastic state.
Density
- Due to increase in pressure and presence of heavier materials like Nickel and Iron towards the centre, the density of earth’s layers also gets on increasing towards the centre.
- The average density of the layers gets on increasing from crust to core and it is nearly 14.5g/cm3 at the very centre.
Importance of studying interior of the earth:
- We rely on Earth for valuable resources such as soil, water, metals, industrial minerals, and energy, and we need to know how to find these resources and exploit them sustainably.
- We can study rocks and the fossils they contain to understand the evolution of our environment and the life within it.
- We can learn to minimize our risks from earthquakes, volcanoes, slope failures, and damaging storms.
- We can learn how and why Earth’s climate has changed in the past, and use that knowledge to understand both natural and human-caused climate change.
- We can recognize how our activities have altered the environment in many ways and the climate in increasingly serious ways, and how to avoid more severe changes in the future.
- We can use our knowledge of Earth to understand other planets in our solar system, as well as those around distant stars.
Conclusion
Studying the interior structure of Earth provides us with a better understanding of Earth, helps us to understand earthquakes, volcanoes, plate tectonics, how the atmosphere formed, and to study earth’s magnetic fields.
Topic: Salient features of world’s physical geography.
Difficulty level: Moderate
Reference: Insights on India
Why the question:
The question is part of the static syllabus of General studies paper – 1 and mentioned as part of Mission-2023 Secure timetable.
Key Demand of the question:
To write about the geomorphic process and significance of exogenic processes.
Directive word:
Explain – Clarify the topic by giving a detailed account as to how and why it occurred, or what is the context. You must be defining key terms wherever appropriate and substantiate with relevant associated facts.
Structure of the answer:
Introduction:
Start by defining geomorphic processes.
Body:
First, write about the detailed classification of geomorphic processes in to endogenic and exogenic. Use a flow chart to show the classification and cite examples.
Next, exogenic forces and how the shape the landforms.
Conclusion:
Conclude by summarising.
Introduction
The term geomorphic relates to the form of the landscape and other natural features of the earth’s surface. The forces causing physical and chemical changes on earth’s surface are known as geomorphic processes. All changes take place under the influence of certain forces working continuously within the earth as well as over the surface of the earth.
Body
The forces working over the earth’s surface are known as exogenic forces, while those working within the earth’s surface are called endogenic forces. They are further classified as per the diagram below:
The processes which occur on the earth’s surface due to the influence of exogenic forces are known as exogenic processes
significance of the exogenic process in formation and deformation of landforms
- Exogenic forcesare a direct result of stress induced in earth materials by various forces that come into existence due to sun’s heat.
- They may face shear stressesthat break rocks and other earth materials or molecular stresses caused due to temperature changes.
- It occurs at or near the earth’s surface that makes the surface wear away.
- Exogenic processes are destructive in nature and are responsible for the degradation and sculpting of the earth’s surface.
- All the exogenic geomorphic processes are covered under a general term,
- Weathering, mass wasting/movements, erosionand transportation are included in denudation.
Conclusion
The formation and deformation of landforms on the earth’s surface is a constant process that is influenced by both external and internal forces. Geomorphic processes are the internal and external factors that cause stresses and chemical activity on earth materials, resulting in changes in the configuration of the earth’s surface.
Topic: poverty and developmental issues
Difficulty level: Tough
Reference: The Hindu
Why the question:
A recent article by Tapasya of The Reporters’ Collective highlights some alarming technocratic proposals for ICDS. As per Union government circulars, the updating of Aadhaar of ICDS rights-holders, including children, on the Poshan Tracker is mandatory, and subsequent Central funds for supplementary nutrition to States is being made contingent on this.
Key Demand of the question:
To write about the digital governance and initiatives affects the rights and dignity of the poor people.
Directive word:
Examine – When asked to ‘Examine’, we must investigate the topic (content words) in detail, inspect it, investigate it and establish the key facts and issues related to the topic in question. While doing so we should explain why these facts and issues are important and their implications.
Structure of the answer:
Introduction:
Begin by giving context with the push seen for digital governance.
Body:
In the first part, write about importance of digital governance and its effect on the society.
Next, write about the negative impact of digital governance on the rights and dignity of poor people. Substantiate with facts/examples.
Next, write about the measures that are needed that to ensure the rights of citizens are not violated in the push for digital India.
Conclusion:
Conclude by summarising.
Introduction
The right to live with dignity is a constitutional imperative. However, it rarely manifests in discussions surrounding digital initiatives in governance. Centralised data dashboards — valuable as they are — have become the go-to mode for assessing policies, relegating principles such as human dignity and hardships in accessing rights to its blind spots. Often when technological glitches prevent one from accessing rights, there is a tendency to make the rights-holder feel responsible for it.
Body
Digital governance compromising rights of poor and needy
- Increasing penetration of digital technology by bridging the existing digital divides is associated with greater social progress of a country. But certain times people without knowledge or access to internet will be left behind in the wheel of progress.
- Social capital: Once an individual is connected, Internet connectivity and ICTs can enhance his or her future social and cultural capital.
- Economic disparity is created between those who can afford the technology and those who don’t.
- A direct correlation between a company’s access to technological advancements and its overall success in bolstering the economy.
- Countries with less digital gap are benefitted more than the ones with more digital gap.
- Education:
- The digital divide also impacts children’s ability to learn and grow in low-income school districts.
- Without Internet access, students are unable to cultivate necessary tech skills in order to understand today’s dynamic economy
- Lack of information:
- Almost all India’s socio-economic problems had links to the “digital divide”, which had come to stay during the era of digital revolution and then again during the era of internet revolution in India.
- Rural India suffered from information poverty. Information is controlled by a few at the top of the pyramid who restrict its percolation down to those at the bottom.
- Political empowerment and mobilization in the age of social media is difficult when there is digital divide.
Conclusion
With digital revolution there must be digital inclusion and transformation must be accompanied by empowerment of masses. Else the spoils will go to the victors and the poor will remain the vanquished in this new era of digital governance. Sabka Saath is more important for sabka vikas.
General Studies – 2
Topic: Role of civil services in a democracy.
Difficulty level: Moderate
Reference: Indian Express
Why the question:
The government has launched an Agnipath scheme for the armed forces of the country with a view to make these a leaner force without compromising on their combat abilities. A similar scheme is perhaps called for with regard to the All India Services (AIS).
Key Demand of the question:
To write about the pros and cons of introducing a scheme similar to Agnipath scheme for All India Services.
Directive word:
Critically analyze – When asked to analyse, you must examine methodically the structure or nature of the topic by separating it into component parts and present them in a summary. When ‘critically’ is suffixed or prefixed to a directive, one needs to look at the good and bad of the topic and give a balanced judgment on the topic.
Structure of the answer:
Introduction:
Begin by giving context of Agnipath scheme.
Body:
In the first part, write about the broad features of Agnipath scheme and its advantages.
Next, write about the how a similar scheme can ensure improved performance of AIS. Write about the other advantages associated with it.
Next, mention the ways in which will adversely affect governance and administration. Suggest alternatives.
Conclusion:
Conclude by writing a way forward.
Introduction
The government has launched an Agnipath scheme for the armed forces of the country with a view to make these a leaner force without compromising on their combat abilities. A similar scheme is projected to be beneficial for All India Services. However, it is only an opinion that must be analysed critically because such ideas if implemented may destabilise governance set up of the nation.
Body
Perceived benefits of Agnipath like scheme for all India Services
- It is claimed that Agnipath like scheme will help to remove complacency and smugness in bureaucracy, prod officers to become performance-oriented, acquire new skills and flair for innovation in administration.
- The AIS is said to have become top heavy with states like UP having 14 officers in rank of DGP and 42 as Additional DGP.
- There is no incentive to perform or be productive. With Agnipath like scheme there can be trimming of services and weeding out of inefficient officials.
Critical analysis
- In the government set up it is wrong to generalise and universally assume that all officers are inefficient and unproductive. Only an objective and impartial performance review can come to this conclusion.
- Without longevity of tenure, there will not be belongingness to the service. Hence it will be foolish to expect results in three years just by changing the officials at higher level. For a system to work, the whole workforce must have a changed mindset and have the skills to implement reforms.
- To expect corporate like performance in organization by changing leaders without giving the human resources at lower level is wishful thinking.
- Moreover, having officials who have worked for several years in the organization are an asset. They serve as institutional memory and are needed so that hasty, sweeping measures in name of reforms create chaos. Public policies cannot be treated lightly as it affects a huge population.
- Moreover, such contract-based system if institutionalised will destabilise the governance of the nation and introduce adhoicism. There is no guarantee that contract employees are not corrupt.
Conclusion
No reform can be made in haste and must be thought through thoroughly. Thye must be incremental and experimented like the lateral entry of civil services before rolling out in a big way.
Topic: Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s interests
Difficulty level: Moderate
Reference: Indian Express
Why the question:
US and India are – and should be – closely aligned in addressing the threat posed by an authoritarian party controlling the state of China.
Key Demand of the question:
To write about the scope of India–United States (US) Defence and technology cooperation.
Directive word:
Analyse – When asked to analyse, you must examine methodically the structure or nature of the topic by separating it into component parts and present them in a summary.
Structure of the answer:
Introduction:
Begin by giving context regarding the growth of India-U.S relationship in the recent past.
Body:
In the first part, write about US is India’s most comprehensive strategic partner, and cooperation between the two extends across multiple areas such as trade, defence, multilateralism, intelligence, cyberspace, civil nuclear energy, education, and healthcare.
Next, write about the how defence and technology cooperation between the two countries can shape the geopolitical order. Mention the opportunities and limitations in the above.
Conclusion:
Conclude by writing a way forward.
Introduction
In recent times, India and USA have strengthened their defence partnership accounting to nearly $15 billion since 2014. The signing of BECA agreement during the 2+2 dialogue shows the strategic convergence of India and USA’s world view. This is especially true with a rising China that threatens to revise the world order.
Body:
The India–United States (US) defence and technology cooperation so far
- DTTI: India and the United States have launched a Defence Technology and Trade Initiative (DTTI) aimed at simplifying technology transfer policies and exploring possibilities of co-development and co-production to invest the defence relationship with strategic value.
- It aims to move past the buyer-seller relationship, that currently dominates Indo-Russia defence deals.
- Defence partnership: USA’s Defence secretary said that it will operationalise India’s ‘Major Defence Partner’ status and continue to build upon existing strong defence cooperation to ensure the US and Indian militaries can collaborate to address shared interests.
- This allows US to sell high technology aircrafts and drones like the Guardian Sea Drones.
- Foundational Agreements: All four foundational agreements have been signed which includes, Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement (BECA), Communications Compatibility and Security Agreement COMCASA, The General Security of Military Information Agreement (GSOMIA), Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA).
- Further, the signing of BECA and the four agreements will fast-forward the integration of the Indo-Pacific strategies of their two countries.
- With logistic memorandum agreement that allows refuelling of each other’s vessels, India and USA will be able to keep a close watch on the movements of Chinese warships in the Indian Ocean. It can counter the String of Pearls strategy of China.
- Moreover, its signing comes at a time when India is locked in one of its most hostile standoffs with China along their disputed border in the Himalayan region and also increased Chinese hegemony in the disputed south China sea.
- 2+2 Dialogue: The foreign and defence ministers of India-USA meet every year for 2+2 dialogue where major security aspects are discussed.
- This is all the more important when China’s aggression has increased and Russia has become anti-west and aligning with China.
- India’s 2+2 with USA as well as Japan and Australia, is in sync with increasing formalization of QUAD, which can be seen in the recent joining of Australia in the Malabar naval exercises.
- Defence deals: Advanced technology aircraft such as Chinook, Apache and Hercules have been obtained from USA. There is no such matching technology with any other nation.
Importance of cooperation
- A strong India benefits the United States. As Secretary of Defense Lloyd Austin noted at the recent 2+2 talks, a strong India-U.S. partnership is a critical building block in a more resilient, regional security architecture.
- Global challenges have multiplied, and the order that has kept the peace since the Cold War’s end is under strain.
- With the rise of China, a new Cold War has begun, this time in the Indo-Pacific, where India is a key player.
- With its global presence and multiple theaters opening up, U.S. power is reaching its limits and becoming increasingly stretched.
- A strong India that not only balances China but also plays a larger security role in the region will relieve some pressure on the United States.
- Assisting India in developing a robust military-industrial complex will most likely shift India’s inclination toward the U.S. for critical weapons imports, as it has with Russia thus far.
- As cost constraints tighten, U.S. defense companies will benefit from partnering with India in their supply chain, taking advantage of lower costs.
- Perhaps in the future, India could be a part of a new multinational weapons project led by the U.S., bringing some of the capabilities it develops as well as financial contributions from its expanding economy.
- Pursuing only a buyer-seller relationship as an alternative to Russia will only shift India’s dependency, which will not be of interest to New Delhi.
Conclusion:
India and the United States need a landmark defense deal to strengthen their defense ties, similar to the 2005 nuclear agreement, which marked a turning point in their overall bilateral relationship. Such a deal will demonstrate to India that the U.S is capable of being a strong ally as Russia has been. The defence partnership between India and USA must aim to ensure rules-based world order and to ensure security and peace against hegemonic tendencies.
General Studies – 3
Topic: Government Budgeting.
Difficulty level: Moderate
Reference: The Hindu
Why the question:
The Finance Minister, Nirmala Sitaraman, said recently that India’s long-term growth prospects are embedded in public capital expenditure programmes. She added that an increase in public investment would crowd in (or pull in) private investment, thus reviving the economy.
Key Demand of the question:
To write about the investment led growth and efficacy of capital expenditure programmes in reviving the economy of India.
Directive word:
Critically examine – When asked to ‘Examine’, we have to look into the topic (content words) in detail, inspect it, investigate it and establish the key facts and issues related to the topic in question. While doing so we should explain why these facts and issues are important and their implications. When ‘critically’ is suffixed or prefixed to a directive, one needs to look at the good and bad of the topic and give a fair judgment.
Structure of the answer:
Introduction:
Begin by defining investment led growth.
Body:
First, write about the various components of investment led growth.
Next, write about the positive impact the increased capital expenditure programmes will have on the economy of India – speedy and sustainable revival, crowding in private investment, boost to investment activity and support economic growth in the next year etc.
Next, write the downside of increased capital expenditure programmes – higher inflation, higher fiscal deficit etc.
Conclusion:
Conclude by writing a way forward to have a prudent increase in capital expenditure whilst adhering to fiscal limits of borrowing.
Introduction
Public investment-led economic growth has a respectable academic pedigree, and forms a credible strand of explanation for India’s post-Independence economic growth.
Recently, India’s Finance minister addressed third G20 Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors (FMCBG) meeting. She said that India’s long-term growth prospects are embedded in public capital expenditure programmes. Thus there is a need to analyse trends in government’s investment policies and their impacts.
Body
Investment-led growth
- Investment-led growth relies on investment to create new capacity.
- This creates more employment and hence higher demand, while simultaneously, increasing production capacity.
- In investment-led growth, supply rises in tandem with higher demand, this leads to increased growth.
Phases of Public investment-led economic growth in India
- India’s post-Independence economic growth was led by the public investment.
- During Asian financial crisis of 1997, the then government initiated public road building projects. These projects led to an investment and export-led boom in the 2000s.
- The project were Golden Quadrilateral (to link metro cities using a high-quality road network) and the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (to ‘provide good all-weather road connectivity to unconnected habitations’).
- However, in 2010s, real Gross Fixed Capital Formation (GFCF) rate declined, which saw a rise to 32.5% in 2019-20 from a low of 30.7% in 2015-16. This trend continued even during pandemic years.
- Between 2014-15 and 2019-20, the shares of agriculture and industry in fixed capital formation/GDP fell from 7.7% and 33.7% to 6.4% and 32.5%, respectively. Whereas the share of services rose from 49% in 2014-15 to 52.3% in 2019-20.
Present issues in the present investment-led economic growth strategy
- The budgetary definition of investment refers to financial investments. It includes purchase of existing financial assets, or loans offered to States. Thus, it is not just capital formation representing an expansion of the productive potential.
- The National Accounts Statistics suggests that over 90% of Gross Capital Formation (GCF) consists of fixed investments. However, the productive potential of investment depends on its composition.
- Within the service sector, although investment in roads and communications rose, but declined in industries and agriculture. There is a need for balance between “directly productive investments” (in farms and factories) and infrastructure investments.
- Although a good amount of time and resources were dedicated to improve ease of doing business in India under ‘Make in India’ campaign. However, it didn’t result in a boost to industrial investment, let alone foreign investment.
- The contribution of foreign capital to financing GCF fell from 3.8% in 2014-15 (or 11.1% in 2011-12) to 2.5% in 2019-20.
Conclusion
The lack of domestic capacity for essential raw industrial materials and capital goods could prove costly. It will likely test India’s ability to withstand external economic challenges. With a depreciating currency and rising (imported) inflation, prospects of sustaining investment recovery are likely to get harder. The deficit on balance of payment is already well above policy makers’ comfort level of 2.5% of GDP.
General Studies – 4
Topic: Ethics and Human Interface: Essence, determinants and consequences of Ethics in-human actions; dimensions of ethics; ethics – in private and public relationships.
7. From a critical assessment of A Theory of Justice by John Rawls. (150 words)
Difficulty level: Tough
Reference: plato.stanford.edu
Why the question:
The question is part of the static syllabus of General studies paper – 4 and part of ‘Philosophical Mondays’ in Mission-2023 Secure.
Structure of the answer:
Introduction:
Start by describing the Rawl’s theory of justice.
Body:
Elaborate on Rawls developed a theory of justice based on social contract theory, holding that the natural state of human beings is freedom, not subjugation to a monarch, no matter how benign or well intentioned. Rawls’s theory views human beings as inherently good and, echoing Kant, inclined toward moral rectitude and action.
Next, write a critique that Rawls’s theory focuses primarily on the issue of distribution, because decisions made in ignorance can neither reward innovation and enterprise nor encourage risk.
Conclusion:
Complete by summarising.
Introduction
John Rawls was an American moral and political philosopher in the liberal tradition. Rawls’s theory of justice revolves around the adaptation of two fundamental principles of justice which would, in turn, guarantee a just and morally acceptable society. The first principle guarantees the right of each person to have the most extensive basic liberty compatible with the liberty of others. The second principle states that social and economic positions are to be to everyone’s advantage and open to all.
Body:
John Rawls theory of Social Justice guarantees a just and morally acceptable society:
- Rawls’ theory of justice as fairness encompasses a central contention that principles of justice is essential to the structure of a constitutional democracy. It must be viewed as political in contrast to more comprehensive moral, philosophical or religious doctrines.
- His concept of social justice gives emphasis to fairness, it must be fair to all, to the most talented as well as the most disadvantaged section.
- Rawls uses the idea of a veil of ignorance to argue that fair and just distribution can be defended on rational grounds. He says that if a person keeps herself/himself under the ‘veil of ignorance’ then s/he would come up with the just distribution, fair laws and policies that would affect the whole society.
- Rawls further says that the institutions must be fair or just. They must keep themselves above parochial interests. In many societies there are such institutions which have been created to serve group’s interests and such institutions cannot serve the interests of justice.
- The contents of the “social primary goods” specified by Rawls are of particular importance, for the fair distribution of them, namely, liberty and opportunity, income and wealth and basis of self-respect in a society will undoubtedly help to achieve the much-needed social justice.
- For example: The recent 10% reservation for the Economically Weaker Sections in education and jobs; reservations for SC/ST etc.
- Another important aspect of his theory is that while laying emphasis on the equal distribution of the “social primary goods”, he envisages “an unequal distribution” of the “social primary goods” if such unequal distribution is “to the advantage of the least favoured”.
- Example: progressive tax system in India, multi-tiered GST system, Philanthropy.
- In envisaging such “unequal distribution” of the social primary goods to benefit the “least favoured” in the society.
Critical assessment
- Advocates of strict equality argue that inequalities permitted by the Difference Principle are unacceptable even if they do benefit the least advantaged.
- The Utilitarian objection to the Difference Principle is that it does not maximize utility. In A Theory of Justice, Rawls uses Utilitarianism as the main theory for comparison with his own, and hence he responds at length to this Utilitarian objection and argues for his own theory in preference to Utilitarianism
- Libertarians object that the Difference Principle involves unacceptable infringements on liberty. For instance, the Difference Principle may require redistributive taxation to the poor, and Libertarians commonly object that such taxation involves the immoral taking of just holdings.
- The Difference Principle is also criticized as a primary distributive principle on the grounds that it mostly ignores claims that people deservecertain economic benefits in light of their actions.
- Advocates of Desert-Based Principles argue that some may deserve a higher level of material goods because of their hard work or contributions even if their unequal rewards do not also function to improve the position of the least advantaged.
- They also argue that the Difference Principle ignores the explanations of how people come to be in the more or less advantaged groups, when such explanations are relevant to the fairness of these positions.
- The Original Position and the Veil of Ignorance may exclude some morally relevant information. the theory excludes in order to promote rationality and is biased in favor of rationality.
- Some criticize it for being similar to Utilitarianism in as much as these two principles could permit or demand inequalities and suffering in order to benefit the least well off.
- There is also the difficulty in applying the theory to practice. It is difficult if not impossible for people to place themselves under the Veil of Ignorance in the Original Position in order to formulate what conduct would be required of them by the MAXI MIN Principle.
- Some question whether or not people are rational enough to assume the veil of ignorance and operate under the two principles.
- The theory was developed more to handle problems within society and there are difficulties in applying the principles to individual decision-making involving specific others.
Conclusion:
His works have influenced famous thinkers like Amartya Sen, Thomas Nagel, Thomas Pogge etc. The concept of Social and Economic Justice is adopted in our Constitution in the form of Directive Principles of State Policy.
Value addition:
Basic principles of his theory:
- Rawls suggests two basic principles of justice.
- Principle of Equal Liberty:
- It means each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive basic liberty compatible with a similar liberty for others.
- Examples: freedom of thought, speech and expression, universal suffrage, freedom from arbitrary arrest and seizure, the right to hold public office etc.
- Difference Principle: There are 2 parts under this
- Fair equality of opportunity: It postulates that public policies are reasonably expected to be to everyone’s advantage and public position and offices are open to all.
- Difference principle: It justifies only those social and economic inequalities that maximize benefits to the least advantaged citizens.
- These principles provide an operating logic for the determination of public interest by the decision- makers.
