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General Studies – 1
Topic: Indian culture will cover the salient aspects of Art Forms, literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times.
Difficulty level: Moderate
Reference: Insights on India
Why the question:
The question is part of the static syllabus of General studies paper – 1 and mentioned as part of Mission-2023 Secure timetable.
Key Demand of the question:
To write about artistic characteristic between 200 BCE and 300 CE and about Stupa architecture.
Directive word:
Discuss – This is an all-encompassing directive – you must debate on paper by going through the details of the issues concerned by examining each one of them. You must give reasons for both for and against arguments.
Structure of the answer:
Introduction:
Begin by giving context of development of art between 200 BCE and 300 CE.
Body:
First, write about the major features of art between 200 BCE and 300 CE – mostly related to religions, Buddha images, construction of Stupas, Chaityas and Viharas, non-Indian art in the artistic creations etc.
Next, write in detail about the features of Stupa architecture and its evolution during this period.
Conclusion:
Conclude by summarising.
Introduction
The stupa (“stupa” is Sanskrit for heap) is an important form of Buddhist architecture, though it predates Buddhism. It is generally considered to be a sepulchral monument—a place of burial or a receptacle for religious objects. At its simplest, a stupa is a relic-filled mound-like or hemispheric structure used for meditation. From the Vedic time onwards, stupas were used as burial mounds in India.
Body
Main characteristics of a Stupa
- The main structure of the Great Stupa consisted of a flattened hemispherical dome, called an anda, placed atop a cylindrical base. Anda, represents the infinite dome of heaven and signifies the cycle of birth, death and rebirth.
- The harmika, located at the summit of the anda, symbolized the zenith beyond life and death (nirvana). Its resemblance to a sacrificial altar was of particular significance for the attainment of nirvana required the sacrifice of the self and the world (what was below needed to be sacrificed to reach the top).
- The parasol was always a distinguishing feature that implied royalty and dignity; it symbolized the sacred Tree of Life or enlightenment.
- The three elements of the chattra at Sanchi represented the Three Jewels of Buddhism: the Buddha, the Dharma (the Law), and the Sangha (the community of monks).
- Vedikas were repeated around the stupa and on the terrace on which the anda rested (medhi level). They served to demarcate the boundary of the sacred precinct with the secular world.
- The stupa is capped by a wooden railing that encircled a pradakshina patha (circumambulatory walkway).
- Sanchi, Sarnath, Amaravati and Bharhut stupas are the oldest examples of Early Buddhist stupa art. The Birth, Enlightenment, First Sermon and Great Departure are depicted using various motifs in these stupas.
- The Jataka stories were depicted on the torans of Stupas. The Jataka stories are a method of teaching Buddhists the lessons of karma, samsara and dharma. The overall structure of the Jataka Tales is about the cycle of samsara that the Buddha had to experience before reaching enlightenment.
Evolution of Stupa architecture in India:
Early Stupas & the Buddha:
- The earliest known mention of the word ‘Stupa’ occurs in several ancient scripts.
- Rigveda refers to a Stupa raised by the King Varuna above the forest in a place having no foundation.
- The word ‘estuka’ is also used in the same sense in Rigveda, probably by then anything raised on the ground like a heap/pile might have been known as Stupa.
- However, the Pali word ‘thupa’ is quite similar to the term Stupa.
- Thupa means a conical heap, a pile or a mound or a conical or bell-shaped shrine containing a relic.
- The earliest stupas were tumuli erected over the remains of mystics, ascetics, teachers, or others who had displayed profound spiritual insight.
- These early structures were heaps of earth and stone which either covered the cremated remains of the individual or their corpse, which was buried in a seated, meditative, position.
- The mound was constructed to cover the body with a wide base tapering up toward the head.
- This shape was used even in cases where the person had been cremated in order to symbolize the meditative posture assumed by enlightened sages.
- The Buddha left instructions for his followers that his remains were to be honoured in this same way.
- These stupas followed the earlier shape but were more elaborate and more carefully constructed to represent the seated Buddha in the lotus position.
- The sites of these stupas were chosen to correlate to the most important events in the Buddha’s life, including Lumbini (his birthplace), Bodh Gaya (where he attained enlightenment), the Deer Park at Sarnath (where he preached his first sermon), Kushingara (where he died).
- Buddhist adherents would make pilgrimages to the individual sites or, depending on their ability or level of devotion, to all of them along a sacred route whereby they would symbolically relive the Buddha’s earthly existence.
Buddhism & Ashoka the Great:
- Buddhism was not a major religion in India even a hundred years after his death.
- It was a minor philosophical school which had developed, along with others, from the religious tradition of Hinduism.
- Buddhism gained more ground earlier than Jainism, and both more than Charvaka, but it still remained a minor philosophical school until the reign of Ashoka the Great.
- The first true stupas were constructed after the reign of Ashoka.
- Emperor Ashoka, 236 BCE Maurya Empire, redistributed the relics housed in the original stupas into 84,000 stupas throughout the world.
- While this is an exaggeration and the stupas were built by Ashoka some 250 years after the Buddha’s death, Ashoka is also credited with the construction of numerous stupas that remain to this day, including those at Sanchi and Sarnath.
- While Indian stupas consist of a solid hemisphere surrounded by a railing, other stupas such as the great stupa at Borobudur (built a thousand years after the one at Sanchi) are considerably more complex.
- Unlike the Sanchi stupa, the one at Borobodur consists of a polygonal base, with steps leading up to the summit and punctuated by as many as 72 smaller stupas along the way.
- Another distinct type of stupa architecture prevalent in India during Ashoka’s reign was associated with rock-cut caves.
- The term ‘chaitya’ is derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Chita’ (The mound of ashes formed by the cremation of a dead body).
- The earliest ‘rock-cut’ sanctuaries date back to c. 200 B.C.
- Eventually, it came to mean the earth mound heaped over the ashes or relics of a saint, and chaitya became thus ‘worshipful’.
- These chambers were carved as retreats for ascetics and monks.
- The architecture resembled the wooden structures of the time, with barrel-vaulted interiors and vertical grooves on the walls to imitate wooden beams and members.
- Even the thatched vedikas and toranas of the ‘built-up’ stupas were made to resemble parallel developments in wood-work.
Present Day Stupas:
- The core ideology of the stupa is retained in terms of architectural design across millennia, and even to this day. However, the difference lies in the material used in the modern-day stupa.
- For instance, the Sambodhi Chaithya is a stupa built with reinforced concrete on a platform supported by two interlocking arches.
- Apart from this, stupa is also having access via Elevators.
- Patliputra karuna Stupa is having glass facade, along with void stupa concept so people can see the holy relics along with ramp design for entrance instead of stairs which makes it barrier free for everyone.
Conclusion
It is thus apparent that the stupa, which was conceived as a simple monument for the Buddha’s corporeal relics, has over time transformed in its form and nomenclature and resulted in various types of structures all over the world. In some regions, even supplementary structures like monasteries have come up alongside stupas, fuelling the inception of new Buddhist orders and sects. However, the core ideology of the stupa remains constant throughout each new development, as does its symbolism and several crucial architectural features. These characteristics must, therefore, be given due consideration and importance while designing any stupa project.
Topic: Indian culture will cover the salient aspects of Art Forms, literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times.
Difficulty level: Difficult
Reference: Insights on India
Why the question:
The question is part of the static syllabus of General studies paper – 1 and mentioned as part of Mission-2023 Secure timetable.
Key Demand of the question:
To write about the comparative features of Nagara, Dravida and Vesara styles.
Directive word:
Elaborate – Give a detailed account as to how and why it occurred, or what is the context. You must be defining key terms wherever appropriate and substantiate with relevant associated facts.
Structure of the answer:
Introduction:
Start by giving context about the three major style of temple architecture.
Body:
First, write in detail, the features of Nagara style and its various sub styles. Cite examples to substantiate.
Next, write in detail, the features of Dravida style and its various sub styles. Cite examples to substantiate.
Next, write in detail, the features of Vesara style and its various sub styles. Cite examples to substantiate.
Conclusion:
Conclude by summarising.
Introduction
Temple architecture of high standard developed in almost all regions during ancient India. Ancient Indian temples are classified in three broad types. This classification is based on different architectural styles, employed in the construction of the temples. Three main style of temple architecture are the Nagara or the Northern style, the Dravida or the Southern style and the Vesara or Mixed style. But at the same time, there are also some regional styles of Bengal, Kerala and the Himalayan areas.
Body
Unique features of Dravida Style of Architecture
- The Dravida temple is enclosed within a compound wall.
- The front wall has an entrance gateway in its centre, which is known as a Gopuram.
- The shape of the main temple tower known as vimana in Tamil Nadu is like a stepped pyramidthat rises up geometrically rather than the curving shikhara of North India.
- In the South Indian temple, the word ‘shikhara’is used only for the crowning element at the top of the temple which is usually shaped like a small stupika or an octagonal cupola— this is equivalent to the amalak and kalasha of North Indian temples.
- Fierce Dvarapalas or the door-keepersguarding the temple adorn the entrance to garbhagriha
- It is common to find a large water reservoir, or a temple tank, enclosed within the complex.
- At some of the most sacred temples in South India, the main temple in which the garbhagriha is situated has, in fact, one of the smallest towers. This is because it is usually the oldest part of the temple
- It is common to find a large water reservoir, or a temple tank, enclosed within the complex.
- Subsidiary shrines are either incorporated within the main temple tower, or located as distinct, separate small shrines beside the main temple
- Kailashnath temple at Ellora is a famous example of a temple built in complete Dravidian style
Unique features of Nagara style of architecture
- The cruciform ground plan and curvilinear mountain-peak like tower are the two most fundamental features of Nagara style.
- The temples of Nagara style generally have a square plan with a number of graduated projections in the middle of each face which give the structure a cruciform shape in the exterior.
- In Nagara style, the Shikhara remains the most prominent element of the temple and the gateway is usually modest or even absent.
- In this style, temples have elaborated boundary, less emphasised.
- The entire temple is built on high stone platform called Jagati
- Generally, they do not have large enclosures and entrances.
- The temple has only one peak or shikhara above the Garbagriha.
- There was a Kalasha placed on the Shikara of a temple.
- Sikhara(the tower) slowly bending inwards and capped by a spheroid plate with ribs around the edge (Amalaka) give the height.
- Temples of Nagara styles are categorized on the basis of the shape of the Shikhara. They are – Rekha Prasad, Phamsana, and Valabhi.
Unique features of Vesara style of architecture:
- Ornamentation:In case of ornamentation of temple walls and pillars, Chalukyan temple shows indigenous quality.
- Transformation of Dravida tower:The Chalukyan builders modified the Dravida towers by minimizing the height of each storey and arranging them in descending order of height from base to top with much ornamentation in each storey.
- Transformation of Nagara tower:Instead of inclined storey here modification is seen in the vertical shape of the tower.
- Two special features of Chalukya temples – Mantapa and Pillars:
- Mantapa: The mantapa has two types of roof – domical ceilings (the dome like ceilings standing on four pillars are very attractive) or Square ceilings (these are vigorously ornamented with mythological pictures).
- Pillars: the miniature decorative pillars of Chalukya temples stands with its own artistic value.
Conclusion
The temple architecture was mainly influenced by geographical, ethnic, racial, historical and linguistic diversities of Indian sub-continent. Every region and period produced its own distinct style of images with its regional variations in iconography. The temple is covered with elaborate sculpture and ornament that form a fundamental part of its conception.
Topic: Role of women and women’s organization, population and associated issues, poverty and developmental issues, urbanization, their problems and their remedies.
Difficulty level: Moderate
Reference: The Hindu , Indian Express
Why the question:
The U.S. stands at that fraught juncture now, after its Supreme Court, in a 6-3 majority, overturned the 1973 ruling in Roe vs Wade, and took away the constitutional right to abortion.
Key Demand of the question:
To write about various laws which have given choice and empowered Indian women and its successes and limitations.
Directive word:
Critically analyze – When asked to analyse, you must examine methodically the structure or nature of the topic by separating it into component parts and present them in a summary. When ‘critically’ is suffixed or prefixed to a directive, one needs to look at the good and bad of the topic and give a balanced judgment on the topic.
Structure of the answer:
Introduction:
Begin by giving context of overturning of Roe v Wade in U.S.A and its implications.
Body:
First, write about the Medical Termination of Pregnancy (Amendment) Act – it major features, its successes and limitations.
Next, write about the Surrogacy Regulation Act – it major features, its successes and limitations.
Next, write about the Prohibition of Child Marriage (Amendment) Bill, 2021,– it major features, its successes and limitations.
Conclusion:
Conclude with a way forward to overcome the limitations.
Introduction
The U.S. stands at that fraught juncture now, after its Supreme Court, in a 6-3 majority, overturned the 1973 ruling in Roe vs Wade, and took away the constitutional right to abortion. In one blow, on June 24, it withdrew from women anywhere in the country their right to reproductive and bodily autonomy. With Roe, as well as the 1992 decision in Planned Parenthood vs Casey that upheld Roe, gone, the court returned “the issue of abortion to the people’s elected representatives”. States can now decide whether to ban abortion, and at what stage in a pregnancy and under what circumstances.
Body
Background
- The fight over abortion has been the U.S.’s most passionately waged ideological battle.
- With a focus that denies any space for compassion or respect for liberty, conservatives have prioritised the task of having Roe overturned for decades.
- With the court now having attained a conservative supermajority, the decision had been imminent — some Republican-ruled States have started banning abortion, with trigger laws in place in anticipation of such a judgment.
About Medical Termination of Pregnancy (Amendment) Act in India
Features
- The Act permits abortion to be allowed up to 20 weeks on the opinion of just one medical practitioner.
- To terminate pregnancies between 20 and 24 weeks, the opinion of two doctors are required. This extension of the gestation period up to 24 weeks is given for special categories of women such as rape/incest victims, differently-abled women and minors.
- For abortions beyond 24 weeks, a state-level Medical Board will decide if it can be permitted, in case of substantial foetal abnormalities.
- The Board will consist of a gynaecologist, a paediatrician, a radiologist or sonographer and any other number of members as notified by the state government.
- Only doctors with specialisation in gynaecology/obstetrics can perform abortions.
- According to the Act, the “name and other particulars of a woman whose pregnancy has been terminated shall not be revealed”, except to a person authorised by law.
- In cases where abortions are desired to terminate pregnancies arising out of rape, where the gestation period exceeds 24 weeks, the only manner would be through a writ petition.
Success
- It will provide greater reproductive rights to women as abortion is considered an important aspect of the reproductive health of women.
- Deaths and injuries from unsafe abortions are largely preventable provided services are performed legally by trained practitioners.
- Raising the upper limit of legal abortions from 20 weeks to 24 weeks for “special categories of women”, including rape and incest survivors, other vulnerable women, and children.
- It will completely be removing the upper gestation limit for abortion in the cases of substantial foetal abnormalities will help many more seek safe and legal abortion services.
- Allowing all women, and not just married ones, to legally seek abortions, and striking out the need for the opinion of a second registered practitioner for aborting pregnancies up to 20 weeks
Limitations
- Son meta-preference: The preference for a male child keeps sex determination centres in business in spite of their illegal status. There are concerns that a more liberal abortion law can aggravate this state-of-affairs.
- Foetal Viability: A key aspect of the legality governing abortions has always been the ‘viability’ of the foetus. Viability implies the period from which a foetus is capable of living outside the womb.
- Currently, viability is usually placed at about seven months (28 weeks) but may occur earlier, even at 24 weeks. Thus, late termination of pregnancy may get in conflict with the viability of the foetus.
- Non-institutional deliveries: Only 22% of 15.6 million abortions happen in healthcare facilities, there is no record of the others. We need far more providers at the lower levels of healthcare delivery to ensure safe abortion services reach more women.
- Lack of Awareness of rights: A study of 1,007 women of ages 15-24 years in Assam and Madhya Pradesh in November 2018 found only 20% young women know about modern contraceptive methods, and 22% are aware that abortion is legal in India. None of the women surveyed were aware of the correct legal gestation of 20 weeks
- Change of Choice: The current Act does not consider factors such as personal choice, a sudden change in circumstances (due to separation from or death of a partner), and domestic violence.
About Surrogacy Regulation Act
Features
- The Act sought to regulate the surrogacy part of a rather flourishing infertility industry in the country.
- Defining ‘surrogacy’ as a practice where a woman undertakes to give birth to a child for another couple and agrees to hand over the child to them after birth, it allows ‘altruistic surrogacy’ — wherein only the medical expenses and insurance coverage is provided by the couple to the surrogate mother during pregnancy
- India has emerged as a hub for infertility treatment, attracting people from the world over with its state-of-the-art technology and competitive prices to treat infertility.
- Soon enough, due to prevailing socio-economic inequities, underprivileged women found an option to ‘rent their wombs’ and thereby make money to take care of their expenses — often to facilitate a marriage, enable children to get an education, or to provide for hospitalisation or surgery for someone in the family.
- Once information of the availability of such wombs got out, the demand also picked up.
- Unscrupulous middle men inveigled themselves into the scene and exploitation of these women began.
- Several instances began to emerge where women, in often desperate straits, started lodging police complaints after they did not receive the promised sum.
Limitations
- As per the Surrogacy Act, a married couple can opt for surrogacy only on medical grounds.
- It also prescribes an age-criteria for both the man and woman.
- Though the law allows single women to resort to surrogacy, she has to either be a widow or a divorcee.
- Single men are not eligible.
- The Bill raises questions over the reproductive rights of a woman. The right to life enshrines the right of reproductive autonomy, inclusive of the right to procreation and parenthood, which is not within the domain of the state, warranting interference of a fundamental right.
- Only a close relative of the couple can be a surrogate mother. She should have been married, with a child of her own. She can only be a surrogate mother once.
- Even at the Bill stage, there was some apprehension about the too restrictive regulations. For instance, it does not allow single (never been married) women, or men, or gay couples to go in for surrogacy.
About Prohibition of Child Marriage (Amendment) Bill
By amending the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act (PCMA), 2006 and other personal law, the legal age of marriage of women will be raised from 18 to 21 years.
Success
- Women and Child Welfare: The poverty of the mother plays the greatest role of all by far — both in relation to her undernourishment and that of her child.
- An early age of marriage, and consequent early pregnancies, also have impacts on nutritional levels of mothers and their children, and their overall health and mental wellbeing.
- Women’s Empowerment and Gender Parity: The mother’s age at childbearing affects educational level, living conditions, health conditions, decision-making power of women.
- Tackling Child Marriage: India is home to the largest number of underage marriages in the world. The law will help to curb the menace of Child Marriage.
Limitation
- Difficulty in Fighting Child Marriage: The implementation of the child marriage law is difficult.
- The evidence suggests that when the law is used, it is mostly to penalise young adults for self-arranged marriages.
- The law to prevent child marriage does not work very well.
- While child marriage has declined, it has been marginal: from 27% in 2015-16 to 23% in 2019-20, according to National Family Health Survey (NFHS) 5.
- 70% of early marriages take place in deprived communities such as Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, and the law will simply push these marriages underground instead of preventing them.
- Criminalisation of a Large Number of Marriages: The change will leave the vast majority of Indian women who marry before they are 21 without the legal protections that the institution of marriage otherwise provides, and make their families criminalizable.
- Lack of Education is a Bigger Problem: According to the State of the World Report 2020 by UNFPA, in India, 51% of young women with no education and 47% of those with only a primary education had married by age 18.
Conclusion
While the West is curtailing abortion rights, India is extending the ceiling of permissible abortions. By outlawing triple talaq, the government has addressed the constant state of insecurity faced by Muslim women. By proposing to revise the permissible marriageable age, the government has held men and women to the same, unbiased standards. Even as the West retrogresses, India shows the path to a progressive society.
General Studies – 2
Topic: Salient features of the Representation of People’s Act.
Difficulty level: Easy
Reference: Indian Express , Insights on India
Why the question:
The political crisis in Maharashtra has brought focus back on the anti-defection law. By all accounts, the law has failed to shore up the stability of elected governments. Not only have many governments fallen due to defections in recent times, but the defectors have not suffered any cautionary consequences.
Key Demand of the question:
To write about the shortcomings of the anti-defection law and measures needed to fix them.
Directive word:
Examine – When asked to ‘Examine’, we must investigate the topic (content words) in detail, inspect it, investigate it and establish the key facts and issues related to the topic in question. While doing so we should explain why these facts and issues are important and their implications.
Structure of the answer:
Introduction:
Write about objectives of anti-defection.
Body:
First, write about various features of anti-defection pertaining to disqualification.
Next, write as to why the anti-defection has been ineffective in preventing defection and horse trading. Substantiate with examples.
Next, suggest measures needed to rectify this.
Conclusion:
Conclude with a way forward.
Introduction
Defection is “desertion by one member of the party of his loyalty towards his political party” or basically it means “When an elected representative joins another party without resigning his present party for benefits”. The institutional malaise is defection and party-hopping is state- neutral, party-neutral, and politics-neutral.
In light of the events unfolding in Maharashtra, with the government facing internal dissent from a block of 22 MLAs, the anti-defection law has again come into the spotlight. The events in Puducherry highlight, yet again, the absurdity of the anti-defection law.
Body
Background
- For a very long time, the Indian political system was impacted by political defections by members of the legislature. This situation brought about greater instability and chaos in the political system.
- Thus, in 1985, to curb the evil of political defections, the 52nd constitution amendment act on Anti-defection law was passed and the 10th Schedule was added in the Indian Constitution.
- The main intent of the law was to combat “the evil of political defections” which may be due to reward of office or other similar considerations.
- The law applies to both Parliament and state assemblies. However, there are several issues in relation to the working of this law.
- 91st Constitution Amendment Act-2003 was enacted and was aimed at limiting the size of the Council of Ministers to debar defectors from holding public offices, and to strengthen the anti-defection law.
Flaws of the current Anti-defection law
- Does not prevent Defection: The Anti-defection law has failed to curb “horse trading” and defection, leading to toppling of governments through machinations of corrupt legislators.
- Eg: The 17-MLA’s of coalition government resigned in Karnataka, leading to change in government. The 17 MLA’s later contested from the party that formed new government.
- Wholesale defection: The law prevents individual defections, but not wholesale defections.
- Eg: Congress government in Madhya Pradesh lost majority due to resignations of MLA’s.
- Against the true spirit of representative democracy: The anti-defection law seeks to provide a stable government by ensuring the legislators do not switch sides.
- However, this law also enforces a restriction on legislators from voting in line with their conscience, judgement and interests of his electorate.
- Impedes legislative control on government: The anti-defection law impedes the oversight function of the legislature over the government, by ensuring that members vote based on the decisions taken by the party leadership.
- In short, if legislators are not able to vote on laws independently, they would not act as an effective check on the government.
- The Anti-Defection Law, in effect, dilutes the separation of powers between the Executive and the Legislature – and centralises power in the hands of the executives.
- Role of presiding officer of the house: The law lays down that legislators may be disqualified on grounds of defection by the Presiding Officer of a legislature based on a petition by any other member of the House.
- However, there are many instances when presiding officers play a part with the vested interests of a political party/government in power.
- Also, the law does not specify a time period for the Presiding Officer to decide on a disqualification plea.
- The decision thus is sometimes based on the whims and fancies of the presiding officer.
- Affects the debate and discussion: The Anti-Defection Law has created a democracy of parties and numbers in India, rather than a democracy of debate and discussion.
- In this way, it does not make a differentiation between dissent and defection and weaken the Parliamentary deliberations on any law.
Steps to be taken
- To be used for major decision making: Several experts have suggested that the law should be valid only for those votes that determine the stability of the government. e.g. passage of the annual budget or no-confidence motions as recommended by Dinesh Goswami Committee.
- Non-partisan authority: Various commissions including National Commission to review the working of the constitution (NCRWC) have recommended that rather than the Presiding Officer, the decision to disqualify a member should be made by the President (in case of MPs) or the Governor (in case of MLAs) on the advice of the Election Commission.
- Independent committee for disqualification: Justice Verma in Hollohan judgment said that tenure of the Speaker is dependent on the continuous support of the majority in the House and therefore, he does not satisfy the requirement of such independent adjudicatory authority.
- Also, his choice as the sole arbiter in the matter violates an essential attribute of the basic feature.
- Thus, the need for an independent authority to deal with the cases of defection.
- Intra-party democracy: 170th Law Commission report underscored the importance of intra-party democracy by arguing that a political party cannot be a dictatorship internally and democratic in its functioning outside.
- Thus, the parties should listen to the opinions of the members and have discussions on the same. This would give the freedom of speech and expression to its members and promote inner-party democracy.
- Limiting Speaker’s discretion: Recent Supreme Court Judgement ruled that Speaker must decide on disqualification within three months of receiving application. It cannot be the discretion of the Speaker to take no action.
Conclusion
There is a need to prevent unholy defections that lead to instability in the governance system of the nation. The current law is clearly flawed and has not effectively curbed defection due to lure of power and money. There is a need for a more rationalised version of anti-defection laws which will help establish a truly representative democracy.
Topic: India and its neighborhood- relations.
Difficulty level: Moderate
Reference: The Hindu , Insights on India
Why the question:
While a growing number of the Taliban’s western and regional lobbyists are distancing themselves from their pyrrhic victory, India pulled a rabbit out of its diplomatic hat by sending a senior diplomatic delegation to the Taliban-occupied Kabul.
Key Demand of the question:
To write about India’s response to regime change in Afghanistan and implications of lack of a coherent policy.
Directive word:
Analyse – When asked to analyse, you must examine methodically the structure or nature of the topic by separating it into component parts and present them in a summary.
Structure of the answer:
Introduction:
Begin by giving context.
Body:
First, in detail, write about the progress of Indo-Afghan relations since Taliban takeover and India’s various responses to it
Next, write about the lack of policy on new regime by India and its various implications. Write both positives and negatives.
Conclusion:
Conclude with a way forward in which India can evolve a coherent policy.
Introduction
The Pakistan-led coalition’s success and luck in toppling a United States-supported constitutional order in Afghanistan has brought to surface unexpected developments. While a growing number of the Taliban’s western and regional lobbyists are distancing themselves from their pyrrhic victory, India pulled a rabbit out of its diplomatic hat by sending a senior diplomatic delegation to the Taliban-occupied Kabul. The visit was the culmination of Delhi’s months of quiet diplomacy and signalling.
Body
Background
- The Taliban takeover of Afghanistan has significant ramifications for South Asia, beginning with the rush of refugees Pakistan may soon see at its western borders.
- But few countries in the region have as much at stake in Afghanistan’s future as India, its fifth-largest aid donor and one of the most effective.
- India now finds many of its critical investments in human and physical infrastructure in Afghanistan in jeopardy as the Taliban take control.
- Worse still, the crisis following the U.S. withdrawal leaves India’s foreign-policy and security interests at considerable risk on two fronts.
- A new Taliban government will likely foster safe havens for anti-Indian terrorist organizations and other groups that could sow chaos in Indian-administered Kashmir.
- Meanwhile, China’s willingness to work with the Taliban could expand its footprint in the region.
- In the last two decades, India had become one of Afghanistan’s most significant donors, providing scholarships to Afghan students, offering food assistance, and helping restore the country’s war-ravaged power grid.
- But based on its past experience with a Taliban government, India’s security establishment now faces serious fears about its interests in the country.
- Despite the Taliban’s public assurances, Afghanistan could once again emerge as a regional terrorist haven.
- When they previously held power, the Taliban gave free rein to a host of anti-Indian terrorist organizations within Afghanistan, most notably Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM) and Lashkar-e-Taiba.
- Safe havens allowed these organizations to regroup, train, and then wreak havoc in Indian-administered Kashmir, the site of a long-running insurgency.
Indo-Afghan relations since Taliban takeover
- Rapprochement after isolation: Just hours after the Taliban’s takeover, in 2021, India was the first country to immediately ban all Afghans travelling to India, including students and patients with a valid Indian visa.
- UN abstention: In a significant but not widely-covered decision, India chose to abstain from the UN Security Council’s calling on the Taliban to open girl schools and continues to remain silent about a worsening situation in Afghanistan.
- India First policy: India’s apparent reorientation can be described and understood as an example of realpolitik, supremacy of national interest and a superficiality of “values” and “sentiments” in the Hobbesian world of international politics.
Implications of lack of policy on Afghanistan
- An “India First” policy seems to drive Delhi’s Taliban rapprochement. If so, it will destroy a central pillar of India’s foreign and security policy, the dismantling of the region’s “terrorist infrastructure”.
- Many Afghans looked at India as an example of a fellow developing nation that overcame the many challenges of building and sustaining a functioning democratic polity.
- More importantly, India was seen as a sincere friend of Afghanistan, unlike many double-faced actors.
- India must not lose its soft power in Kabul.
- Even for an “interest”-based foreign policy, it is counterproductive to lose the trust and goodwill of Afghans toward India by embracing a policy that is doomed to failure on multiple grounds.
Conclusion
Afghanistan needs a strong UN mandate, including a UN-led political transition process supported by a UN peace keeping/making force. India can lend its support to such endeavours which are worthy of its character, ambition and Afghanistan’s needs. India needs a long-term strategic approach towards Afghanistan that weaves political, economic, military and diplomatic dimensions into a coherent whole within the framework of a grand strategy. India’s Afghan policy must be based on a clear-cut understanding of India’s strategic goals in the region, and the regional and global strategic environment
General Studies – 3
Topic: Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization, of resources, growth, development and employment
Difficulty level: Easy
Reference: Indian Express
Why the question:
India’s goods and services tax (GST) will be five years old on July 1. The GST Council, comprising minister representatives from all states and union territories, will be meeting over the next few days.
Key Demand of the question:
To write about various successes and limitations of GST and reforms that are needed in it.
Directive word:
Critically examine – When asked to ‘Examine’, we have to look into the topic (content words) in detail, inspect it, investigate it and establish the key facts and issues related to the topic in question. While doing so we should explain why these facts and issues are important and their implications. When ‘critically’ is suffixed or prefixed to a directive, one needs to look at the good and bad of the topic and give a fair judgment.
Structure of the answer:
Introduction:
Begin by aims and objectives behind the launch of GST.
Body:
First, write about the achievements of GST in the past 5 years. Substantiate with examples, facts or statistics.
Next, write about the shortcomings of GST in the past 5 years. Substantiate with examples, facts or statistics.
Next, suggest reforms in GST.
Conclusion:
Conclude with a way forward.
Introduction
The Goods and Services Tax (GST) is an indirect tax system which was rolled out in 2017 with the aim of ‘One Nation, one tax’. The Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) has pointed out lacunae in the GST regime, saying that system-validated input tax credit through invoice matching is not in place and a non-intrusive e-tax system still remains elusive.
India’s goods and services tax (GST) will be five years old on July 1, 2022.
Body
Various issues with respect to goods and services tax (GST) regime
- The breakdown of trust and cooperative federalism between states and the Union government:
- It turned out to be prescient as GST failed to live up to its economic promises and states’ revenues were protected through this guarantee, despite Finance’s attempt to wriggle out of this commitment during the pandemic under the alibi of an “act of God”.
- The Union government’s proclivity to levy and appropriate cess revenues for itself without sharing them with the states has lent credence to the wisdom of guaranteed compensation for states.
- This guarantee is now set to expire..
- The recent Supreme Court’s judgment highlighting that the GST Council’s recommendations are not binding on the states:
- The SC recently observed that it is in the national interest to have both cooperative and competitive federalism, and hence, the GST Council’s decisions are not binding on the states.
- This means that states had and continue to have the right to either comply fully with the Council’s recommendations or modify them as they deem necessary.
- This has opened the window for states to override the fundamental GST premise of a “one nation one tax”.
- If pushed to a corner, states may now use the SC ruling as a shield.
- Expiry of the revenue guarantee that protected states’ revenues
- GST is too precariously perched to yank away the compensation guarantee for states.
- the Union government is not desirous of extending the compensation guarantee.
- Difficulty in tax administration:
- Goes against the canons of taxation.
- A modern tax system should be fair, uncomplicated, transparent and easy to administer.
- It must yield revenues sufficient to cover the cost of government services and public goods.
- Lack of clarity on many rules is also leading to various litigation and different interpretations (of the same laws) by Advanced Ruling Authorities in different states.
- Complicated taxation structure:
- A World Bank study published in May 2018 said that the Indian GST rate was the second highest among the 115 countries with a national value-added tax.
- It was also the most complicated, with five main tax rates, several exemptions, a cess and a special rate for gold.
- The multilateral lender said that only five countries had four or more non-zero tax rates—India, Italy, Pakistan, Luxembourg and Ghana.
- Falling revenue amid disruptions caused by the Covid-19 pandemic has continuously delayed the reform, leaving a large number of items in high tax slabs.
- High compliance costs: are also arising because the prevalence of multiple tax rates implies a need to classify inputs and outputs based on the applicable tax rate. Along with the need to apply the correct rate, firms are required to match invoices between their outputs and inputs to be eligible for full input tax credit, which increases compliance costs further.
- GST Council meetings: the meetings of the GST Council are not as frequent as they were earlier, if the recent incidents are anything to go by, and it often end up with disagreement, fight and strong letters and statements. States have also accused the Centre of cornering a substantial portion of tax in forms of cess.
- There has been lack of coordination between the Department of Revenue, the Central Board of Indirect Taxes and Customs and the GST Network.
However, there are gains too from the GST Regime
- Introduced as one of the biggest economic reforms by the incumbent government, the GST kicked off with the promise to streamline taxation and compliance burden.
- Based on the one nation one tax ideology, GST has helped in reducing the cascading effect of tax considerably.
- Also, multiplicity of compliances under various indirect taxes has been reduced.
- Hence, introduction of GST in India has brought in efficiencies in indirect tax compliance, incidence and reduced the number of indirect tax authorities that a taxpayer needed to interact with
- Another positive is the concept of e-invoicing which seeks to ensure greater transparency in supplier-receiver transactions.
- The introduction of e-way bill coupled with the crackdown on fake invoicing has helped in bringing in a substantial portion of GST revenues, which were either being evaded or under-reported, in order.
Way Forward
- The first target should be to move to at least a three-rate structure, a lower rate for essential goods, a relatively high rate for luxury goods, and a standard rate for the majority of goods and services.
- The next step would be simplifying the tax returns process.
- The scope for lowering the GST rate is umbilically linked to direct tax reform.
- A better way to make a tax system more just is by lowering regressive indirect tax rates while widening the base for progressive direct taxes on income and corporate profits.
- The government needs to establish GST Tribunals to reduce litigation timelines and the pressure on courts.
- The state authorities for Advance Ruling should ideally also have an independent jurist member, apart from a representative from the tax department.
- Many goods are still outside the GST net, which comes in the way of seamless flow of input tax credit. Key items outside its ambit are electricity, alcohol, petroleum goods and real estate. This aspect need to be looked into.
- Emulating the best practices. The GST in New Zealand, widely regarded as the most efficient in the world, has a single standard rate of 12.5 percent across all industry groups.
- The Fifteenth finance commission, in its latest report, has addressed many issues including large shortfall in collections as compared to original forecast, high volatility in collections, accumulation of large integrated GST credit, glitches in invoice and input tax matching, and delay in refunds.
- The Commission also observed that the continuing dependence of states on compensation from the central government for making up for the shortfall in revenue is a concern.
- While at the same time it suggested that the structural implications of GST for low consumption states need to be considered.
Conclusion
While the GST’s journey has given its stakeholders some causes to celebrate, it has also given moments of worry. But then, no transformation of the scale and complexity can be achieved without its share of hiccups and challenges. The process of evolution will take a few years more for the mammoth structural change to stabilize. The four-year journey of GST has been a roller-coaster ride for all stakeholders with equitable share of hits, misses and expectations. A work-in-progress in its transformational journey, GST suffers from several shortcomings which need to be resolved quickly, but its journey to ‘Good & Simple Tax’ is still quite long.
General Studies – 4
Topic: Contributions of moral thinkers and philosophers from India and the world to the concepts of morality;
Difficulty Level: Moderate
Reference: plato.stanford.edu
Why the question:
The question is part of the static syllabus of General studies paper – 4 and part of ‘Philosophical Mondays’ in Mission-2023 Secure.
Key Demand of the question:
To write about the evaluative aspect of Kantian Categorical Imperative.
Structure of the answer:
Introduction:
Begin by defining Categorical Imperative of Emmanuel Kant.
Body:
Begin the body by explaining in detail about your understanding of Categorical Imperative with examples. You can use simple but effective examples to put forward your ideas regarding Universal Moral Law etc.
Next, mention how it provides a framework of judging moral right actions from the wrong ones.
Conclusion:
Give a concise summation of your views to conclude the answer.
Introduction
Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) argued that the supreme principle of morality is a standard of rationality that he dubbed the “Categorical Imperative” (CI). Kant characterized the CI as an objective, rationally necessary and unconditional principle that we must always follow despite any natural desires or inclinations we may have to the contrary.
Body:
The CI states that it is immoral to use another person merely as a means to an end and that people must under all circumstances be treated as ends in themselves. This is in contrast to some interpretations of the utilitarian view, which allow for use of individuals as means to benefit the many.
Kantian ethics refers to a deontological ethical theory ascribed to the German philosopher Immanuel Kant. The theory, developed as a result of Enlightenment rationalism, is based on the view that the only intrinsically good thing is a good will; an action can only be good if its maxim – the principle behind it – is duty to the moral law.
CI provide a way for us to evaluate moral actions and to make moral judgments
- Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.
- It states that one should choose our ‘codes of conduct’ only if they serve perfect / imperfect duty and are good for all.
- Perfect duties are blameworthy if not met and are the basic requirements for a human being.
- An example of perfect duty is the avoidance of suicide.
- Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, always at the same time as an end and never merely as a means to an end.
- This states that we should not use humanity of ourselves or others as a means to an end.
- An example would be that of slavery or prostitution.
- For Kant to treat people with dignity was to treat them morally. This idea became a rallying point for those struggling against social hierarchies and for human rights. It represent what is called the moral conception of rights.
- Taking the example of forced labour and jajmani system where human beings are treated as “means” for achieving the “ends” that is profit motive. Human intrinsic worth i.e. dignity is not respected and they are exploited for petty gains. This led to inequality in society where one section of people exploiting other section for self-motive.
- Every rational being must so act as if he were through his maxim always a legislating member in the universal kingdom of ends.
- This states that we should consider ourselves to be members in the universal realm of ends.
- We should consider our actions to be of consequence to everyone else in that our actions affect not only ourselves but that of others.
- g.: Eviction of tribes from forest land for construction of a dam and rendering them homeless.
Conclusion
Kant’s philosophy of human individuals as end in itself endorses the golden rule of “treating others as one’s self would wish to be treated”. As no one would wish to be used simply as a means, therefore one should not also use other human beings as means to achieve their ends. This philosophy can be of great help in resolving the ethical dilemmas where there is debate between relative importance of means and ends.
Value addition
Kant’s Categorical Imperative:
- Kant believed that there was a supreme principle of morality, and he referred to it as The Categorical Imperative.
- The CI determines what our moral duties are. Kant thought that all acts should be judged according to a rule he called the Categorical Imperative.
- A categorical imperative denotes an absolute, unconditional requirement that exerts its authority in all circumstances, both required and justified as an end in itself.
- He gives the highest honor for the categorical imperative because it became universal law that can be applied to any and every one.
- Kant is saying that simply willing that our moral rule become a universal law produces a logical contradiction.
- His categorical imperative ensures that we aren’t doing these acts in mimic of others but rather in line with one universal law.
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