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General Studies – 1
Introduction
A megalith is a stone which is larger in size and has been used to construct a monument or a structure. The monument or the structure has been constructed either alone or together with other stones. Megalithic has been used to describe buildings built by people living in many different periods from many parts of the world. The construction of this type of structures took place mainly in the Neolithic and continued into the Chalcolithic Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age.
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Important megalithic sites: Adichannalur, T. Narasipur, Jadigenahalli, Hallur, Chandravalli, Brahmagiri and Maski etc.
Importance of Megaliths
- Megaliths are a vital element of landscape and for historical reasons they are a sui generis monument, commemorating prehistorical cultures.
- Burial practices: Megaliths were constructed either as burial sites or commemorative (non-sepulchral) memorials. This helps identify various communities and contact between them by comparing burial practices.
- Socio-religious beliefs: Goods of daily use have been found in megaliths used as graves. This reflects the belief of megalith people in life after death and belief in existence of soul.
- Economic life: Goods related to hunting are found more as compared to agriculture. This signifies the fact that megalith people were hunter gatherers and did not practice advanced agriculture. Evidences of seeds of rice, wheat, millet, Barley, Pea etc. have been found in Megaliths.
- Polity: Fact that megalith construction required efforts of a group of people points towards an organized polity. Also these were not built for commoners. They signify the emergence of a ruling class.
- Technology: The range of iron artifacts recovered indicate that the megalithic people practiced a wide range of occupations and included carpenters, cobblers, bamboo craftsmen, lapidaries engaged in gemstone work, blacksmiths, coppersmiths and goldsmiths, proof of complex social organization.
- Megaliths find mention in Sangam literature and Buddhist work Manimeklai.
- At the same time, along with the remaining elements of the natural and cultural environment, they create a unique image of place identity, attracting large numbers of tourists.
steps needed to safeguard these fast-disappearing monuments
- Belying their historical significance, megalithic burial sites today are found in various states of neglect.
- Governments should build megalithic parks to help preserve these fast-disappearing monuments.
- The threats of encroachment and destruction should be warded off by classifying them as monuments of importance by ASI and development of no-construction zones in 200m radius of the monuments
- AMASR act should be implemented in true letter and spirit to safeguards these treasure troves of history of our ancestors.
- Funds from CSR and schemes like Hamari Dharohar should be implemented.
- The local self-governments should be given the responsibility of developing eco-tourism which could help their income as well as safeguard the monuments.
Conclusion:
Prehistoric Megaliths or large stone constructions dating before the advent of written history are found in huge numbers in all parts of India. Their economy was primarily subsistent economy.
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Megalithic economy:
- Agriculture:
- It was agriculture was the basis of their economy. Megalith builders made it possible for the introduction of the advance methods of agriculture on a large scale, based on irrigation.
- Major crops: The archaeological evidence indicates the cultivation of Rice, Ragi, Navane, Wheat, Kodo millet, Barley, Hyacinth bean, Horse gram, Black gram, Green gram, Common pea, Pigeon pea, Grass pea, Jobs tears, Indian jujube, Goosefoot (Fathen), Lentil, Cotton, etc. in the megalithic period of South India.
- Pastoralism:
- Animals like cattle, sheep/goat, dog, pig, horse, buffalo, fowl, ass, etc. were domesticated on a large scale.
- The occurrence of the remains of domesticated pig and fowl suggests pig rearing and poultry farming on a small scale at many of the sites.
- Hunting and gathering:
- Hunting was an additional source of the food supply.
- The equipment used for hunting were arrowheads, spears and javelins etc.
- The major animals hunted were Wild boar, Hyena, Barking deer, Sambar, Chital, Nilgai, Peacock, Leopard, Tiger, Cheetah, Sloth bear, Wild hog, fowl, etc. The animals are identified from their skeletal remains.
- Fishing:
- The archaeological evidence such as the skeletal remains of fish and the equipment used for fishing like terracotta net sinkers from Takalghat and fish-hooks from Khapa and Tangal show that Megalithic people also practiced fishing.
- Arts and crafts:
- The major activities were pottery making, lapidary, smithery, carpentry, basketry and stone cutting etc.
- Major Metals: iron, copper, gold, silver etc.
- The archaeological evidence The major implements are axes, ploughshares, hoes, sickles, spades, etc.
- Carpentry: axes, chisels, wedges, adzes, anvil, borers, hammer stones, etc. were the major tools.
- Pottery: The major pottery of megalithic culture are black-and-red ware (BRW), burnished black ware, red ware, micaccous red ware, grey ware, russet coated painted ware (RCPW), etc.
- Other crafts: Bead making, Mat weaving, Stone cutting, Terracotta making, Rock art, etc.
Introduction
In India Bhimbetka caves surrounded by the northern boundaries of Vindhya Mountain ranges near Bhopal have more than 600 caves that have the oldest prehistoric paintings in India. These caves had been used as a shelter by people from the earliest periods. There are paintings of all periods starting from the Paleolithic era to the medieval era. The paintings turn out to be a mirror showing evolution of humanity through time.
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Rock paintings in India
Upper Paleolithic
Prehistoric paintings have been found in many parts of the world. There is no proof if Lower Paleolithic people ever produced any art objects. But by the Upper Paleolithic times we see a proliferation of artistic activities.
- Around the world, the walls of many caves of this time are full of finely carved and painted pictures of animals which the cave-dwellers hunted. The subjects of their drawings were human figures, human activities, geometric designs and symbols.
- In India the earliest paintings have been reported from the Upper Paleolithic times.
- The paintings of the Upper Paleolithic phase are linear representations, in green and dark red, of huge animal figures, such as Bisons, elephants, tigers, rhinos and boars besides stick-like human figures.
- The rock shelters on banks of the River Suyal at Lakhudiyar, about twenty kilometers on the Almora– Barechina road, bear these prehistoric paintings.
- The richest paintings are reported from the Vindhya ranges of Madhya Pradesh and their Kaimurean extensions into Uttar Pradesh. These hill ranges are full of Paleolithic and Mesolithic remains, and they are also full of forests, wild plants, fruits, streams and creeks, thus a perfect place for Stone Age people to live.
- Bhimbetka : The themes of paintings found here are of great variety, ranging from mundane events of daily life in those times to sacred and royal images. These include hunting, dancing, music, horse and elephant riders, animal fighting, honey collection, decoration of bodies, and other household scenes.
There is a superimposition of paintings in Bhimbetka from all the three periods.
Mesolithic Painting
- The largest number of paintings belong to Period II that covers the Mesolithic paintings. During this period the themes multiply but the paintings are smaller in size.
- Hunting scenes predominate during this period. The hunting scenes depict people hunting in groups, armed with barbed spears, pointed sticks, arrows and bows. In some paintings these primitive men are shown with traps and snares probably to catch animals. The hunters are shown wearing simple clothes and ornaments.
- The hunting scenes depict people hunting in groups, armed with barbed spears, pointed sticks, arrows and bows.
- In some paintings these primitive men are shown with traps and snares probably to catch animals. The hunters are shown wearing simple clothes and ornaments.
- Sites: Langhnaj in Gujarat, Bhimbetka and Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh, SanganaKallu in Karnataka.
Chalcolithic Painting
- The paintings of this period reveal the association, contact, and mutual exchange of requirements of the cave dwellers of this area with settled agricultural communities of the Malwa plains.
- Many a time Chalcolithic ceramics and rock paintings bear common motifs, e.g., cross-hatched squares, lattices.
- The artists of Bhimbetka used many colours, including various shades of white, yellow, orange, red ochre, purple, brown, green and black.
- The paintings, though from the remote past, do not lack pictorial quality. Despite various limitations such as acute working conditions, inadequate tools, materials, etc., there is a charm of simple rendering of scenes of the environment in which the artists lived.
- The men shown in them appear adventurous and rejoicing in their lives. The animals are shown more youthful and majestic than perhaps they actually were. The primitive artists seem to possess an intrinsic passion for storytelling.
- In one of the scenes, a group of people have been shown hunting a bison. In the process, some injured men are depicted lying scattered on the ground. In another scene, an animal is shown in the agony of death and the men are depicted dancing.
It is interesting to note that at many rock-art sites often a new painting is painted on top of an older painting. At Bhimbetka, in some places, there are as many as 20 layers of paintings, one on top of another.
Significance of prehistoric paintings in India
- The way people lived in those times is difficult to surmise. It was only until scholars began to discover the places where prehistoric people lived.
- Excavation at these places brought to light old tools, pottery, habitats, bones of ancient human beings and animals, and drawings on cave walls.
- By piecing together the information deduced from these objects and the cave drawings, scholars have constructed fairly accurate knowledge about what happened and how people lived in prehistoric times.
- These prehistoric paintings help us to understand about early human beings, their lifestyle, their food habits, their daily activities and, above all, they help us understand their mind—the way they thought.
- Prehistoric period remains are a great witness to the evolution of human civilization, through the numerous rock weapons, tools, ceramics and bones.
More than anything else, the rock paintings are the greatest wealth the primitive human beings of this period left behind.
Conclusion
Prehistoric paintings are a lens through which Archeologists have been able to predict the evolution of human kind with more accuracy. Various tools, objects and paintings tell us the type of social background of the people. It helps in verifying the social Darwinism as well as the growth trajectory of our ancestors. It is very important to preserve these sites, that have immense information stored through means of paintings.
General Studies – 2
As India deals with the post-pandemic world, a challenge is the loss of a friendly government in Afghanistan. This has increased the strategic value of India’s relations with the Central Asian (CA) republics. Three of them — Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan to the north, and Tajikistan in the northeast — border Afghanistan.
Regional cooperation to enhance the commonality of views with Central Asia, and counter the assertive Sino-Pakistani axis in Afghanistan is India’s major motive.
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Perils of not engaging with Central Asia
- India’s economic activities in Central Asia have been hampered by the absence of land-access, resource constraints, great-power politics and slow implementation of the projects.
- Growing influence of China in Central Asia, China’s One Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) seems to be a credible threat to India’s objective on overcoming connectivity issues with Central Asia to ensure strengthened economic-political relations.
- Lack of accessibility: India does not share physical borders with any of the Central Asian states and the unstable situation in Afghanistan, impact of US-Iran tensions on regional connectivity projects and India’s antagonistic relations with Pakistan has further complicated connectivity and trade prospects for India.
- Domestic challenges faced by the region, emerging from religious extremism, authoritarian regimes, terrorism, ongoing conflicts etc is in itself a challenge in furthering India’s economic interests.
- India visualised the Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India (TAPI), and the North South Transport Corridor projects long before China’s BRI, but our progress has been disappointing.
- Pakistan will never allow India the land-route access to Central Asia and our route through Chabahar and Bandar Abbas (Iran) has also been impacted due to the American sanctions.
- With the increasing influence of China on Iran, India will find it harder to develop its projects there
Engaging with Central Asia
- Trade: Recognising the accentuated strategic importance of Central Asia, India should ideally take an aggressive approach towards trade with the region by not only trying to ensure the execution of pending connectivity projects, but also identifying other areas such as digital infrastructure and education that provide scope to improve regional presence.
- Defence cooperation: Since security is a common concern for both India and the CARs, defence cooperation should be another domain to explore beyond what exists currently, much like the currently ongoing joint-military exercise “KAZIND” between India and Kazakhstan.
- Roping in Russia: India could also look to utilise its longstanding friendship with Russia, one of the most influential players in Central Asia, to make more headway in the region.
- A positive step to this end has been the recent conversation between Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Russian President Vladimir Putin, where the two leaders extensively spoke about expanding cooperation in Central Asia, amongst other issues.
- Connectivity: New Delhi, which invested $3 billion in Afghanistan, has been expanding its ties with energy-rich Central Asian nations.
- New Delhi has also backed regional infrastructure projects including the North-South corridor that includes highways and railways connecting Chabahar port in Iran with Russia to reduce the time of shipments between Europe and central Asian markets.
Way forward
- India should leverage the historical, cultural and civilizational bonds as well as traditionally close people-to-people contacts to build its Central Asia partnership.
- ICABC can help promote business linkages, facilitate greater understanding of taxation, business regulations in India and the Central Asian countries and incentivize trade, business and investment, especially in the area of Small and Medium Enterprises.
- Through Central Asia Dialogue, India has the opportunity of actively engaging in the economic reconstruction of Afghanistan, including through the implementation of infrastructure, energy, transit and transport projects.
- India should effectively use Chabahar port in Iran to establish trade and transport communications with Central Asian markets.
Conclusion
India and Central Asia face a myriad of common challenges like terrorism, extremism, drug trafficking and such other issues. All these commonalities make them natural partner in their developmental journey and calls for greater cooperation in regional and global arena.
General Studies – 3
Introduction
Data retention is the practice of storing and managing personal health data and records for a designated period and typically, the policies pertain to data type, format, duration, deletion mechanism, ownership, and procedure for violation or breach of the policy.
In a welcome development, the National Health Authority (NHA) which is the body responsible for administering the Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission (ABDM), has initiated a consultation process on the retention of health data by health-care providers in India. The consultation paper asks for feedback on what data is to be retained, and for how long.
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Objectives and benefits of data retention
- The aim of data retention is described in terms of benefits to the individual and the public at large.
- Individuals benefit through greater convenience and choice, created through portability of health records.
- The broader public benefits through research and innovation, driven by the availability of more and better data to analyse.
- The purpose of formulation and implementation of a Health Data Retention Guideline/Policy for India is to ensure uniformity in a manner, which ensures that every healthcare facility implements record retention and compliance with all applicable regulations / guidelines / laws in India.
- The proposed Health Data Retention Guideline/Policy has been envisioned to minimize risks associated with personal health data and to maximize benefits from usage of this data by ensuring that data retention guidelines are in sync with all applicable legal and regulatory compliances.
- Several lines of evidence show that nations, which have developed strong health data governance systems, have safely and securely used health data for strengthening healthcare and public health delivery systems
Risk to privacy due to data retention
- Risk of over-collection: A simple classification system, as suggested in the consultation paper, exposes individuals to harms arising from over-collection and retention of unnecessary data.
- At the same time, this kind of one-size-fits-all system can also lead to the under-retention of data that is genuinely required for research or public policy needs. Instead, we should seek to classify data based on its use.
- The Supreme Court of India has clarified that privacy is a fundamental right, and any interference into the right must pass a four-part test: legality; legitimate aim; proportionality, and appropriate safeguards.
- Storing sensitive data say heart problems etc violates the above principles.
- This data may also be misused to increase insurance premiums or even deny coverage to pre-existing diseases.
- The mandatory retention of health data is one such form of interference with the right to privacy.
Way forward
- Clear and specific case for retention: The test for retaining data should be that a clear and specific case has been identified for such retention, following a rigorous process run by suitable authorities.
- Anonymise data: A second safeguard would be to anonymise data that is being retained for research purposes, again, unless a specific case is made for keeping personally identifiable information. If neither of these is true, the data should be deleted.
- Express and informed consent: An alternate basis for retaining data can be the express and informed consent of the individual in question.
- User-based classification process: Health-care service providers and everyone else will have to comply with the data protection law, once it is adopted by Parliament.
Conclusion
A privacy-centric process is needed to determine what data to retain and for how long. The need for guidelines on data retention for personally identifiable information (PII), or personal health information (PHI) stems from the emerging landscape and thinking and on the need for protection of sensitive data while ensuring effective usage of such information in clinical decision-making by healthcare professionals. This leads to improvement in overall quality of healthcare delivery and which is possible only if longer retention periods are mandated for certain types of health data while ensuring privacy and anonymity where possible.
General Studies – 4
Introduction
Nishkam Karma is a central theme in the Bhagavad Gita. An important philosophical concept in Karma yoga, it means to act unselfishly, or without personal gain in mind. When acting out of Nishkam Karma, an individual is acting without any expectation that good will be returned to him/her. In Sanskrit, nishkam means “action without motive,” “work without desire” or “desire-less.”
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Philosophy of Nishkam Karma
- Karma Yoga focuses on the perfect alignment of thought, word and deed.
- Nishkam Karma is considered non-attachment to the result of personal actions in life, but with selfless and loving motives.
- It shows how one can live in this world and work in a manner that benefits oneself and the milieu in which he is placed.
- Desire for specific gains will cause bondage, but deeds done with a sense of dedication and in the spirit of service to God free one from such bondage.
- Example: On the battlefield, Krishna told Arjuna, “Do your duty without thinking about the outcome.” What he meant was, one cannot be sure about the results and hence must not think about the outcomes, when one is performing his/her duty. One may or may not attain the desired result in the end, but thinking in a loop about the possible outcomes will only pile to the confusion, make one doubtful, distracted and increase chances of failures!
- The donation or charity done to the less fortunate of the society must not be based on the fame a person receives at the end of it. Rather, the pure joy of giving, sense of satisfaction that someone’s life is more comfortable now should be the motive. It applies to CSR, NGOs, HNIs too.
Importance of Nishkam karma for an administrator
- An administrator should always keep his/her “self” behind the “self of others” and inspire him/her to abide by the duties and oath of service.
- It makes his/her decisions unbiased and neutral because his intention is focused on his duties and not on the individual he is serving. E.g. He/She will take unbiased decision in a case involving a marginalized person and a powerful politician.
- It enhances the accountability of his/her office and also keeps him/her high on moral values like impartiality, integrity etc. E.g. when an officer is not aspiring for jobs after retirement, he/she will always be integral in the actions.
- It will make his actions empathetic and compassionate towards the weaker section of society, and make his life easy as it will be free of too much of expectations.
- It makes one perform his/her duties without attachment and despite any failures it keeps him/her duty bound with a positive determination to do better.
Conclusion
In today’s times, which is often said to be the testing times of extreme materialism, wrenching changes, contradictions and despondency all around, is wielding psychological and physical pressures and leading us to delusions, continual physical sufferings and mental agonies. This necessitates the need to heed the call of “Nishkama Karma” ─ “Be intent on action not on the fruits of action; avoid attraction to the fruits and attachment to inaction.”
6. Does simplicity have an intrinsic value for a leader in the public sphere? Examine (10M)
Introduction
Simplicity is about taking control over your life and resisting the forces of the dominant society that tell us to claw our way to the top, to be a winner, regardless of consequences. Simplicity is finding balance in our lives and leading a life that is uncluttered yet sophisticated.
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Simplicity – an intrinsic value for leader in public sphere
Simplicity is not something you find or something you do, simplicity is a way of thinking and it takes discipline. Leadership is the ability to influence people; to get them to act together and on time; to provide direction and instil confidence.
Great leaders understand that leadership involves taking the collective, their people and team on the same journey as themselves and making it as easy as possible for people to follow. Often, great leaders espouse the principle that they don’t expect anyone to do anything they would not do themselves.
These men and women consult widely, listen carefully, define clearly and act decisively. They know clear thinking and solutions, that can be understood, are contagious amongst their people, and they also know that the opposite is true.
For instance, Gandhiji lived with the harijans to understand their plight first which made it easier for him as well as the people to connect with each other easily.
There is power in simplicity. When a leadership team can make things uncomplicated and clear, that’s where the magic happens. That’s when people at all levels can really focus and make things happen. That’s where you can really create traction and begin to produce awesome results.
Great leaders understand the wisdom of truthfulness and clarity; of keeping their message simple and easy to understand. The footprints of great leaders, who saw into the future and spanned generations, who have previously travelled our paths will often reveal simply, yet profoundly, the benefits of speaking and acting clearly.
Conclusion
Simplicity is not simple. The world around us is exceptionally complex. Thus, it’s our ability on how we process complex things and make it simple will be the true achievement. We live in ecosystem that is deteriorating rapidly, the generation is not the happiest one either and we are on the verge of collapse-ecologically, morally, socially, psychologically and otherwise. We need to separate between our Want and Need and then only we can approach simplicity, where life is full of joy and its richness is bountiful. Thus, simplicity is the ultimate sophistication.
