NOTE: Please remember that following ‘answers’ are NOT ‘model answers’. They are NOT synopsis too if we go by definition of the term. What we are providing is content that both meets demand of the question and at the same time gives you extra points in the form of background information.
General Studies – 2
Topic: Structure, organization and functioning of the Executive and the Judiciary—Ministries and Departments of the Government; pressure groups and formal/informal associations and their role in the Polity.
Reference: Indian Express
Why the question:
The article explains that Women need greater representation across the judiciary, including the Supreme Court. But the appointment of the first woman CJI must not overlook seniority and merit.
Key Demand of the question:
One is
Directive:
Account – Weigh up to what extent something is true. Persuade the reader of your argument by citing relevant research but also remember to point out any flaws and counter- arguments as well. Conclude by stating clearly how far you are in agreement with the original proposition.
Structure of the answer:
Introduction:
Start with in general status of women in the country.
Body:
The answer body must have the following aspects covered:
Point out to facts that paint a grim picture of the representation of women in the judiciary.
Discuss the underlying factors responsible for such a situation.
Explain that the entry of women judges into spaces from which they had historically been excluded has been a positive step in the direction of judiciaries being perceived as being more transparent, inclusive, and representative.
By their mere presence, women judges enhance the legitimacy of courts, sending a powerful signal that they are open and accessible to those who seek recourse to justice.
They could contribute far more to justice than improving its appearance: they also contribute significantly to the quality of decision-making, and thus to the quality of justice itself.
Conclusion:
Conclude that Women judges could bring a more comprehensive and empathetic perspective of gender sensitivity in the judiciary.
Introduction
With the retirement of Justice R Banumathi and the recent retirement of another women judge, Justice Indu Malhotra, one can hear voices from the corridors of the Supreme Court (SC) advocating for the appointment of more women judges to the apex court.
Body
Status of women in Indian judiciary
- In the 71 years of history of the SC, there have been only eight women judges — the first was Justice Fathima Beevi, who was elevated to the bench after a long gap of 39 years from the date of establishment of the SC.
- There has never been a female Chief Justice. This figure is consistently low across the higher judiciary.
- There are only 80 women judges out of the sanctioned strength of 1,113 judges in the High Courts and the Supreme Court.
- Only two of these 80 women judges are in the Supreme Court who have now retired and the other 78 are in various High Courts, comprising only 7.2% of the number of judges.
- There are six High Courts — Manipur, Meghalaya, Patna, Tripura, Telangana, and Uttarakhand — where there are no sitting women judges.
- Currently Justice Indira Bannerjee is the only woman judge in Supreme Court who is set to retire in September.
Benefits of diversity and gender representation in Supreme court
- The entry of women judges into spaces from which they had historically been excluded has been a positive step in the direction of judiciaries being perceived as being more transparent, inclusive, and representative.
- By their mere presence, women judges enhance the legitimacy of courts, sending a powerful signal that they are open and accessible to those who seek recourse to justice.
- They could contribute far more to justice than improving its appearance: they also contribute significantly to the quality of decision-making, and thus to the quality of justice itself.
- By elucidating how laws and rulings can be based on gender stereotypes, or how they might have a different impact on women and men, a gender perspective enhances the fairness of the adjudication.
- Eg: A judge of the Madhya Pradesh High Court imposed a condition while granting bail to a man accused of sexual assault — that he should go to the residence of the victim and get a Rakhi tied to his wrist. Such baseless judgements can be prevented.
- Women judges bring those lived experiences to their judicial actions, experiences that tend toward a more comprehensive and empathetic perspective.
- Improving the representation of women could go a long way towards a more balanced and empathetic approach in cases involving sexual violence.
- Judges need to be trained to place themselves in the shoes of the victim of sexual violence while passing orders, said the AG.
- There is a dearth of compulsory courses in gender sensitization in law schools.
- Certain law schools have the subject either as a specialization or as an elective.
Challenges to women’s entry into judiciary
- A major barrier to women’s recruitment as district judges are the eligibility criteria to take the entrance exams.
- Lawyers need to have seven years of continuous legal practice and be in the age bracket of 35-45.
- This is a disadvantage for women as many are married by this age.
- Further, the long and inflexible work hours in law, combined with familial responsibilities, force many women to drop out of practice and they fail to meet the requirement of continuous practice.
- Many esteemed lawyers are not elevated to Supreme court Judge, with exception of one such instance i.e Justice Indira Bannerjee.
Conclusion
This initiative must come from the Supreme Court itself, considering that the power of appointment rests almost exclusively with the Supreme Court Collegium. The goal must be to achieve at least 50% representation of women in all leadership positions.
Topic: Issues relating to development and management of Social Sector/Services relating to Health, Education, Human Resources.
2. Critically analyse the continuing pandemic impact on rising food insecurity in India. (250 words)
Reference: The Hindu
Why the question:
The article explains how the inability of those already on the brink of subsistence to absorb a second economic shock cannot be overlooked.
Key Demand of the question:
Critically analyse the continuing pandemic impact on rising food insecurity in India.
Directive:
Critically analyze – When asked to analyse, you have to examine methodically the structure or nature of the topic by separating it into component parts and present them as a whole in a summary. When ‘critically’ is suffixed or prefixed to a directive, one needs to look at the good and bad of the topic and give a fair judgment.
Structure of the answer:
Introduction:
Start with brief background of the question.
Body:
Discuss the inter relation of pandemic and rising food insecurity in India.
The loss in nutrition may have come as a consequence of people losing their jobs and/or being pushed into lower income brackets over time due to the nature and handling of the pandemic.
Account for underlying reasons.
Suggest what needs to be done to address these concerns.
Conclusion:
Conclude with way ahead.
Introduction
With the second, more vigorous wave of COVID-19, the inability of those already on the brink of subsistence to absorb a second economic shock cannot be overlooked even as the current health crisis is creating havoc. Rural distress specifically needs closer examination and urgent policy attention.
Body
Pandemic impact on rising food insecurity in India
- The most recent data suggest a persistence of cutting down on food even nine months after the first lockdown, during the seeming “revival” period.
- While 40% of the sample cut down on food during the first lockdown, an alarming 25% reportedly continued to cut down on food during the most recent survey conducted between December and January 2021.
- Households reported cutting down on nutritious food — 80% cut down on milk, vegetables, pulses and oil (around 50% reported cutting down on pulses alone).
- Disaggregating the figure, we find that the poorer, socially marginalised Dalits, and those with lesser access to food security schemes (such as migrants) faced more severe food insecurity.
- Comparing similar households, we find households in Uttar Pradesh and Jharkhand were faring among the worst performing States.
- These reductions will undoubtedly further accelerate the impending effects on children’s nutrition, as highlighted in the National Family Health Survey or NFHS-V (2019-20) and the Global Food Policy Report, 2021.
- The loss in nutrition may have come as a consequence of people losing their jobs and/or being pushed into lower income brackets over time due to the nature and handling of the pandemic.
Need of the hour
- The Government has promised to restart the Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana (PMGKAY) with 5 kg of rice/wheat per person per month for the next two months.
- The government needs to provide similar support for stabler longer periods; expand the current offering to include nutritious foods like pulses; address issues faced in existing schemes such as MGNREGA (like delays in wages and rationing); and new schemes such as a potential urban employment scheme should be explored.
- Food security schemes such as ration provided to children through anganwadis, Public Distribution System and mid-day meal scheme in primary schools need to be ramped up systematically and urgently.
- Food security will be taken care once One Nation One Ration Card is implemented throughout the country.
- For migrants stuck in cities without work, community kitchens (such as Amma canteens) are required. The most vulnerable will need more predictable and stable support than ever before.
Conclusion
It is clear that households have not had a chance to rebuild, and with many completely exhausting their savings and facing massive debt, they are bound to be more severely hit than last year. In the face of such a threat, including high unemployment that is steadily rising again, the state must ensure immediate, sustained action.
General Studies – 3
Topic: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways etc.
Reference: nap.edu
Why the question:
The question is based on the analysis of nuclear energy and its possible contributions to the energy mix in India.
Key Demand of the question:
Discuss in what way Nuclear energy although has potential to solve India’s energy problems cannot be the panacea for the energy problem.
Directive:
Elucidate – Give a detailed account as to how and why it occurred, or what is the particular context. You must be defining key terms where ever appropriate, and substantiate with relevant associated facts.
Structure of the answer:
Introduction:
Start with brief background of the context of the question.
Body:
The answer body must have the following aspects covered:
Discuss nuclear energy potential and need of utilisation of nuclear power in India.
Mention risks associated with nuclear energy.
Highlight why we shouldn’t depend completely on nuclear.
Conclusion:
Conclude with way forward.
Introduction
Nuclear energy is undoubtedly most controversial, yet critical part for India’s future energy security. As we know India’s annual energy demand is expected to rise to 800 GW by 2032, it is very important to consider every source of energy in the optimum energy mix. Arguments in favor of nuclear energy become even more compelling if we consider vast thorium reserves that India have.
Body
Nuclear energy and solving India’s energy problem
- No greenhouse gasses are emitted in Nuclear Power generation and in this way environmental costs are significantly less.
- Quantities of nuclear fuel needed are considerably less than thermal power plants. Fr eg 10000 MW generation by coal will need 30-35 million tons of coal, but nuclear fuel needed will be only 300-350 tons.
- It generates very limited waste in quantity (though far more hazardous in quality).
Nuclear energy not a panacea for India
- India’s domestic Uranium Reserve can support only 10000 MW of energy. So our future potential depends upon development of third stage of Nuclear Program.
- Otherwise, there will be again overdependence upon imported Uranium as it is case with Oil currently. Hence, long term strategy will be only determined when third stage is functional.
- Current Nuclear reactors consume significant amount of water. So, most of upcoming plants will be set up near sea coasts.
- It will put pressure on the coastline as India’s Western coastline is home to fragile ecology of Western Ghats.
- Further, till now only 21 plants have been operational. There are long gestation periods which increase costs of the plant significantly. Only a Nuclear Industry revolution in the future in nuclear energy can make this achievable.
- New safeguard requirements post Fukushima disaster, has pushed per MW costs of nuclear reactors significantly higher in comparison to Thermal, solar and wind plants.
- Jaitapur plant in Maharashtra (AREVA) is expected to cost 21 crore/ MW in comparison other sources cost 8-10 crore/ MW. It is to be seen that whether differences of operational/ running costs justify such higher capital expenditure on nuclear plants.
- Some argue that Total costs of a Nuclear Lifecycle which involves Mining of Uranium, transportation and storage, capital costs of plants, processing/ reprocessing of plants, possible disasters and then handling of waste generated for hundreds of years is significantly more that economic value generated during lifetime of the functioning of the plant, which is generally 40-50 years.
- Nuclear installations will be favorite targets of terrorists (also in case of war) which can cause irreversible damage to people living in nearby areas.
- In long run if worldwide dependence on nuclear energy increases, it will be most unavoidable way of nuclear proliferation as interest and attempt to invest in indigenous industry will increase.
- Otherwise, smaller counties will continue to buy relevant technologies or components from a few western countries which will serve private interest of few.
- India doesn’t yet have credible waste disposal policy and infrastructure in place.
Conclusion
Nuclear energy, though is critical for India’s energy security but is not panacea for the problem. People of India have right to have safe and sustainable energy. So future development should depend upon cost benefit analysis taking into account all the externalities involved in various components of energy mix. If this is done, it is most likely that policy will get incline strongly in favor of non-conventional sources of energy that is solar, wind and biomass.
Topic: Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization, of resources, growth, development and employment.
Reference: The Hindu
Why the question:
Treasury Secretary Janet Yellen has thrown the weight of the U.S. government behind a push for a global corporate minimum tax rate.
Key Demand of the question:
Critically examine in what way the bid for a minimum global corporate income tax could be a game-changer.
Directive:
Critically examine – When asked to ‘Examine’, we have to look into the topic (content words) in detail, inspect it, investigate it and establish the key facts and issues related to the topic in question. While doing so we should explain why these facts and issues are important and their implications. When ‘critically’ is suffixed or prefixed to a directive, one needs to look at the good and bad of the topic and give a fair judgment.
Structure of the answer:
Introduction:
Start with what you understand by global corporate income tax.
Body:
The answer body must have the following aspects covered:
Explain why a global minimum tax? – Major economies are aiming to discourage multinational companies from shifting profits – and tax revenues – to low-tax countries regardless of where their sales are made. Increasingly, income from intangible sources such as drug patents, software and royalties on intellectual property has migrated to these jurisdictions, allowing companies to avoid paying higher taxes in their traditional home countries.
Discuss the necessity for a minimum global corporate income tax.
Highlight the limitations with alternative policy options.
Discuss the concerns associated with the idea.
Conclusion:
The impact of the policy will be far-reaching impacting inequalities, provision of public services, and reduction of flight of capital from developing countries including India and that will impact poverty, thus it is worth giving a try despite the challenges and concerns.
Introduction
The US Treasury Secretary has urged G20 nations to move towards a global minimum corporate tax. It is an attempt to reverse a “30-year race to the bottom” in which countries have resorted to slashing corporate tax rates to attract multinational corporations (MNCs). Although the novel argument addresses a vital issue common among many nations, yet the solution carries more adverse impacts for developing countries.
Body
Can minimum global corporate income tax be a game-chnager?
- The US proposal envisages a 21% minimum corporate tax rate, coupled with cancelling exemptions on income from countries that do not legislate a minimum tax to discourage the shifting of multinational operations and profits overseas.
- The increase in corporation tax comes at a time when the pandemic is costing governments across the world, and is also timed with the US’s push for a USD 2.3 trillion infrastructure upgrade proposal.
- The plan tailors to address the low effective rates of tax forked out by some of the world’s biggest corporations.
- Digital giants such as Apple, Alphabet and Facebook have been relying on complicated networks of subsidiaries to hoover profits (25-30%) out of tax havens such as Ireland and the Bahamas.
- Although the justification suggests that it is vital to work with different countries to end the burdens of tax competition and corporate tax-based erosion, the reason behind the American push appears to be domestic.
- It primarily intends to compensate for any flaws that might arise from the Joe Biden administration’s proposed increase in the US corporate tax rate.
- The US is eyeing to get $2.5 trillion in 15 years by raising corporate tax rates from 21% currently to 28%.
- However, doing so in isolation will put the US at a disadvantage vis-à-vis tax havens.
- Therefore, it wants everyone to follow its lead. Furthermore, it wants to fund its ambitious $2-trillion infrastructure projects from the proceeds of tax revenue.
- With the proposal being suggested, the US—being the biggest economy by far in terms of consumption and corporations also looking to lock companies at home—aims to emerge as a dominant player.
Critical analysis
- The proposal impinges on the right of the sovereign to decide a nation’s tax policy.
- Taxation is ultimately a sovereign function, and depending upon the needs and circumstances of the nation, the government is open to participate and engage in the emerging discussions globally around the corporate tax structure.
- A global minimum rate would essentially take away a tool that countries use to push policies that suit them.
- A lower tax rate is a tool they can use to alternatively push economic activity.
- For instance, in the backdrop of the pandemic, IMF and World Bank data suggest that developing countries with less ability to offer mega stimulus packages may experience a longer economic hangover than developed nations.
- Also, a global minimum tax rate will do little to tackle tax evasion.
India’s perspective
- India’s annual tax losses due to corporate tax abuse are estimated at over $10 billion, according to the Tax Justice Network report.
- Although the Equalisation Levy addresses the challenges posed by the enterprises that administer their business through digital means, India stands on the same page with the US as far as digital tax issues are concerned.
- Nonetheless, the suggestion of the proposal at such a time is bound to cost more than the benefits accrued for India.
- Multinationals are a source of foreign direct investment. These corporations help to generate demand with efficient utilisation of resources and create employment in low-income countries.
- Nations have used their freedom to set corporation tax rates as a way to attract such businesses.
- Smaller countries such as Ireland, the Netherlands and Singapore have attracted footloose businesses by offering low corporate tax rates.
- The global minimum tax rate will finish off every opportunity for such countries whose only weapon to attract these companies is lower taxes.
- In a world where there are income inequalities across geographies, a minimum global corporation tax rate could crowd out investment opportunities.
- India has already been proactively engaging with foreign governments in double taxation avoidance agreements, tax information exchange agreements, and multilateral conventions to plug loopholes.
- This proposal of a common tax rate, thereby, adds no further benefits to India.
Conclusion
According to economic theory, the US seems right in claiming a win-win situation for all the nations. However, in the real world, the policy will create unwanted hurdles for many developing countries’ growth paths, especially India. In today’s crucial times of health emergency, inclusive and unconditional policies must be designed in place of such inward-looking and protectionist plans. The policy itself puts a question on globalisation as it will be beneficial only for the US to become a monopoly.
Topic: Major crops-cropping patterns in various parts of the country, – different types of irrigation and irrigation systems storage, transport and marketing of agricultural produce and issues and related constraints; e-technology in the aid of farmers.
Reference: The Hindu
Why the question:
A recent study has found that Groundwater depletion may reduce winter cropping intensity by 20% in India. Thus, the context of the question.
Key Demand of the question:
Account for the reasons for accelerated depletion of groundwater in our country, discuss its relation with irrigation and cropping intensity.
Directive:
Discuss – This is an all-encompassing directive – you have to debate on paper by going through the details of the issues concerned by examining each one of them. You have to give reasons for both for and against arguments.
Structure of the answer:
Introduction:
Start with some key data related to groundwater depletion in the country, one can quote some recent report.
Body:
The answer body must have the following aspects covered:
What is groundwater and why is it so crucial for irrigation in India?
What are the reasons for accelerated depletion of groundwater? – Intensive agriculture, Recharge Problem, Groundwater not prioritized in policies, issue with estimation of ground water resources, agricultural crop pricing and water intensive crops etc.
Discuss possible solutions to address the problem.
Conclusion:
Conclude with way forward.
Introduction
Groundwater is a critical resource for food security, providing 40% of the world’s irrigation. Millions of farmers depend on groundwater irrigation to help produce 40% of the world’s agricultural production, including a large proportion of staple crops like rice and wheat. Yet, groundwater reserves are becoming rapidly depleted in many important agricultural regions across the globe
Body
Reasons for accelerated depletion of groundwater
- Tube well construction has rapidly increased since the 1960s across India, allowing farmers to increase cropping intensity, or the number of seasons when crops are planted in a given year, by expanding production into the largely dry winter and summer seasons.
- Because of high rates of extraction, aquifers are rapidly becoming depleted across much of India, with the northwest and south predicted to have critically low groundwater availability by 2025.
- The eastern region also suffers from dwindling freshwater stores, due to groundwater extraction for agricultural irrigation and falling monsoonal precipitation.
- It was also found that 13% of the villages in which farmers plant a winter crop are located in critically water-depleted regions.
- Low-prices or free electricity offers an incentive to unchecked lifting of groundwater.
- Moreover, industries are also extracting ground water and polluting them with toxic chemicals.
- Ground water is also suffering salt water incursion due to eroding coastlines and rising sea levels which is a direct result of climate change and global warming.
- In urban areas, extraction of ground water without suitable user charges is a big reason for depletion. Rain water harvesting has not been uniformly and universally implemented, thereby rendering the recharge of ground water ineffective.
Measures needed to augment ground water
- The government should develop policies to determine which crops should be grown in which region according to the water availability, which “has not been the focus.” For instance, Punjab has a semi-arid climate but it grows rice, which depletes groundwater and is “highly unsustainable.”
- The traditional flood irrigation in India accounts for huge water loss through evapotranspiration. Drip irrigation and sprinkler irrigation must be used for efficient utilisation of water.
- There should be restrictions to cut off the access to groundwater in areas identified as “critical” and “dark zones”, where the water table is overused or very low.
- There is a need to treat water as common resource rather than private property to prevent its overexploitation
- Problems and issues such as water logging, salinity, agricultural toxins, and industrial effluents, all need to be properly looked into.
- Government has initiated schemes like DRIP programme, more drop per crop, Krishi Sinchai Yojana to ensure economical water use practices in agriculture.
- Bottom-up approach by empowering the local community to become active participants in managing groundwater.
- Creating regulatory options at the community level such as panchayat is also one among the feasible solutions.
- Traditional methods of water conservation should be encouraged to minimize the depletion of water resources.
- Artificial recharge of tube wells, water reuse, afforestation, scientific methods of agriculture should also be done.
Conclusion
Sustainable management of groundwater in India is vital for tackling growing challenges related to water availability. The effective answer to the groundwater crisis is to integrate conservation and development activities, from water extraction to water management, at the local level; making communities aware and involving them fully is therefore critical for success.
Topic: Role of external state and non-state actors in creating challenges to internal security.
Reference: Indian Express
Why the question:
The article from Indian Express brings to us detailed analysis of the Maoist problem in the country.
Key Demand of the question:
Analyse in what way the Maoist insurgency is more of a law and order problem than an ideological one in India.
Directive:
Comment– here we have to express our knowledge and understanding of the issue and form an overall opinion thereupon.
Structure of the answer:
Introduction:
Start with some data on recent insurgencies witnessed in the country.
Body:
First discuss in what way the problem is more of an ideological one. The Maoist insurgency is more of a law and order problem than an ideological one. It is always so in areas in the throes of insurgency of any kind. The tribal support for Maoists being ideological rather than being a largely forced one or one that has to do with their daily struggles of life during which the state hardly plays an assuaging role.
Give examples to support your answer.
Conclusion:
Conclude with solutions to address the problem.
Introduction
The recent setback to anti-Naxal operations (ANO) in Chhattisgarh, where 22 personnel of Central para-military forces (CPMFs) were killed in an encounter with Maoists in the Dandakaranya forest of Bastar region, is undoubtedly a grim reminder of our security forces’ repeated failure to measure up to the challenges posed by the guerrillas.
Body
Maoist insurgent more than just ideological problem
- The Maoist insurgency is more of a law-and-order problem than an ideological one. It is always so in areas in the throes of insurgency of any kind.
- One shouldn’t overstate the tribal support for Maoists being ideological rather than being a largely forced one or one that has to do with their daily struggles of life during which the state hardly plays an assuaging role.
- On the contrary, the state inflicts or tends to inflict what many non-Maoist and even anti-Maoist activists call state violence.
- The tribals still feel unsafe when the police enter their villages during ANOs.
- Clearly, support for the Maoists, forced or voluntary, is a product of state’s failure to reach out to them rather than being one born out of some commitment to the Maoist ideology.
- Interviews by journalists, including this writer, with several former high-ranking Maoist cadres have underscored their naive understanding about the basic tenets of Communist or Maoist thought.
- It always comes across as some kind of rote learning that struggles to respond to posers they were never exposed to.
Measures needed by government to tackle the maoist insugency
- Modernizing the police force: The scheme focuses on strengthening police infrastructure by construction of secure police stations, training centres, police housing (residential) and equipping police stations with required mobility, modern weaponry, communication equipment and forensic set-up etc.
- On the administrative side, changes include separation of investigation from law and order, specialized wings for Social and Cyber Crimes are initiated in several states.
- Various technological reforms are pushed including modernization of the control room, fast tracking Crime and Criminal Tracking Network and System (CCTNS), pushing for National Intelligence Grid (NATGRID) and pushing for incorporation of new technology into policing
- Social Integration: State Governments have surrender and rehabilitation policy, while the Central Government supplements the efforts of the State Governments through the Security Related Expenditure (SRE) Scheme for LWE affected States.
- Additional incentives are given for surrendering with weapons/ammunition.
- The surrenderers are also imparted vocational training with a monthly stipend for a maximum period of 36 months.
- Skill Development: Skill Development in 34 Districts affected by Left Wing Extremism” under implementation from 2011-12 aims to establish ITIs and Skill Development Centres in LWE affected districts.
- Infrastructure Development: Road Connectivity, communication needs to be rapidly scaled up in LWE affected districts. Eg: Mobile towers being set up in remote areas.
- Community policing improves interface with citizens and makes police more sensitive. E.g. (i) Janamaithri Suraksha Padhathi, Kerala (ii) Friends of Police Movement (FOP), Tamil Nadu (iii) Suraksha Setu – Safe City Surat Project
- Improve communication network: There should be sharing of information & knowledge to improve the functioning of police force.
- Better Surveillance and Monitoring with standardization, deployment and integration of private security surveillance system.
Conclusion
An ideology based on violence and annihilation is doomed to fail in a democracy which offers legitimate forums of grievance redressal. Through a holistic approach focusing on development and security related interventions, the LWE problem can be successfully tackled.
General Studies – 4
Topic: Contributions of moral thinkers and philosophers from India and world.
7. Elucidate upon the contributions of Plato in the evolution of the theory of virtue. (250 words)
Reference: Ethics, Integrity and Aptitude by Lexicon Publications.
Why the question:
The question is from the static portions of GS paper IV , part Theory of Virtue.
Key Demand of the question:
One is expected to discuss in detail the contributions of Plato in the evolution of the theory of virtue.
Directive:
Elucidate – Give a detailed account as to how and why it occurred, or what is the particular context. You must be defining key terms where ever appropriate, and substantiate with relevant associated facts.
Structure of the answer:
Introduction:
Start with what you understand by Theory of Virtue in brief.
Body:
Explain that Virtue can be defined as the moral character of the person carrying out an action, irrespective of ethical duties or the consequences of particular actions.
Plato’s theory of virtue follows the Socratic doctrine, he identifies virtue with knowledge. According to him, virtue is teachable, and that humans can learn morality just as they can learn any other subject. Thus, moral beings are not born but made through education.
Discuss its importance and relevance as of today.
Conclusion:
Conclude with significance of the idea of Plato with respect to theory of virtue.
Introduction
Aspiring for a good society has been a philosophical debate down through the century. Leading a good life is invariably associated with the idea of a good society. Two thousand five years back Greek philosopher Plato pondered over this subject deeply. Plato depicted a picture of human personality according to his psychological trait and social acumen. He invented the innate merits of people and techniques to improve upon them. Accordingly, he devised his famous theory of virtue.
Body
Meaning of Virtue
Virtues are perceived as good qualities of a person. These are moral dispositions of a person. We say someone is very kind by nature or very benevolent. We say someone virtuous when he exhibits certain good qualities which are approved by a society. Suppose someone is very punctual to his work or someone is honest, we say he is a virtuous person. So virtue is generally understood as a character trait. The opposite of virtue is called vice. Morally unacceptable qualities are generally termed as vice.
Plato’s theory of virtue
Plato, the most famous Greek mind owes much to his teacher Socrates in order to develop a theory of virtue. Socrates believed that knowledge is virtue. Socrates believed that if one person knows what is good he cannot but do ‘good’. Good is what is there. This is objective, universal and unchangeable. Therefore, knowing good is virtue
From this Plato developed his theory of cardinal virtues. Cardinal virtues are the fundamental virtues on which other virtues are based. According to Plato, there are four such cardinal virtues. These are wisdom, courage, temperance and justice. In fact, Plato considers the former three as basic cardinal virtues whereas the last one i.e. Justice as tertiary virtue.
Plato’s theory of virtue is based on his metaphysical conception of a tripartite soul. Plato believed that human souls are determined by three basic dispositions. Those are reason, instinct and appetite. Each of these dispositions has certain kind of moral expressions. Reason gives rise to intellectual activities or wisdom. Instinct gives rise to courage. Appetite gives rise to temperance. This tripartite distinction can be also seen in Indian philosophical system. The Sankhya school of Indian tradition depicts threes qualities of prakriti i.e. sattva, rajas and tamas. These are called as trivarga guna.
Relevance today
- Justice as fairness will always remain relevant. In a world where there is stark divide between rich and poor, the haves and have-nots; there is a need for socio economic justice. To remove the ills of gender discrimination and violence, there is a need for gender justice. Human dignity as given by Kant, cannot be realised without the idea of Justice. There cannot be rule of law without Justice. Eg: Sister Abhaya case in Kerala, where convicts were brought to justice recently. Justice, is thus a virtue that sustains the human existence.
- We live in an age of extreme competition where in education plays crucial role in determining our place in the society. Wisdom in the form of common sense is of utmost important to prevent being deceived. Moreover, as human beings are increasingly becoming more materialistic and consumerist, there is a need to reign the greed of desires. This is possible when the mankind is not just educated or worldly wise but also has deeper wisdom regarding their actions and its impact on the planet. As Plato says, reality is a shadow of ideas, it is more important to understand the Essense.
- In contemporary times, mankind is faced by multiple dangers such as life-threatening pandemic, climate change induced disasters. On a micro level, any small change in life can be fear inducing. For instance, going abroad for higher studies or quitting a high paying job to pursue civil services. Every decision of our lives requires courage and conviction to materialise it into reality.
- Moderation is most relevant in current economy driven by excessive wastage of natural resources. As Gandhi said, there is enough for everyone’s need and not everyone’s greed. Moderation is the key for sustainable development. It also prevents one to be on either extreme of a spectrum in life.
Conclusion
The four cardinal values form a virtue theory of ethics. The virtues are called cardinal because they are regarded as the basic virtues required for a virtuous life. Our value system and principles help us stay grounded and form an integral part of our identities. In the end, all that matters is not how much wealth or riches one had, rather the virtuous path one took in the journey of life.
